FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

AND 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  HOUSE 


MARY  LMATTHEWS 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 
AND  THE  CARE  OF  THE  HOUSE 


A  CANNING-CLUB  WINNER 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


AND 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  HOUSE 

FIRST  LESSONS 
FOR  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 

MARY  LOCK  WOOD  MATTHEWS,  B.S. 

PROFESSOR    OF    HOME    ECONOMICS    AND    HEAD    OF    THE 

DEPARTMENT    OF    HOME    ECONOMICS   IN 

PURDUE    UNIVERSITY 


vION.REFERI 


BOSTON 
LITTLE,   BROWN,   AND    COMPANY 

1923 


M  33 


Copyright,  1921, 
BY  LITTLE,  BROWN,  AND  COMPANY. 

All  rights  reserved 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


PREFACE 

THIS  volume  is  intended  for  use  in  classes  begin- 
ning the  study  of  foods  and  cookery.  It  has  been 
arranged  for  use  in  the  elementary  schools  and  does 
not  presuppose  any  training  in  general  science.  It 
is  strictly  an  elementary  treatment  of  the  subject. 

The  book  deals  with  foods,  their  selection  and 
preparation,  and  the  planning  of  meals  from  the 
nutritive,  aesthetic  and  economic  standpoints.  The 
"meal  plan"  is  used  in  order  to  make  the  meal  the 
basis  of  the  work.  Through  the  "Home  Problems" 
the  home  and  school  work  may  be  correlated. 

The  author  appreciates  the  help  given  in  illus- 
trating the  book  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards, the  Detroit  Stove  Works,  and  the  Chambers 
Manufacturing  Company.  The  author  also  grate- 
fully acknowledges  the  criticisms  and  suggestions 
of  educators  who  kindly  read  the  manuscript. 


934075 


TO  THE  STUDENT 

HAVE  you  thought  about  what  you  will  do  when 
you  finish  school  ? 

Perhaps  you  have  decided  to  be  a  teacher,  a 
librarian,  a  stenographer,  a  doctor,  a  nurse.  Perhaps 
you  are  making  plans  to  take  a  course  in  high  school 
or  college  that  will  fit  you  for  one  of  these  callings ; 
you  would  not  consider  yourself  capable  of  entering 
any  of  them  without  training. 

Very  probably  you  will  be  at  some  time  the 
manager  of  a  home.  Have  you  thought  about  the 
importance  of  being  trained  for  home-making? 

It  is  only  within  the  past  twenty-five  years  that 
it  has  been  considered  proper  for  the  public  schools 
to  train  girls  for  the  work  which  most  of  them  will 
do  for  the  longest  period  in  their  lives,  the  work  of 
home-making. 

Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards  was  the  first  to  say  that 
the  schools  ought  to  teach  "right  living ;"  and, 
largely  through  her  efforts  and  her  inspiration,  plans 
have  been  worked  out  whereby  girls  while  in  school 
can  be  taught  many  things  about  right  living. 

Right  living  begins  with  the  home.  Who  makes 
the  home?  The  man  may  furnish  the  money  to 
build  and  maintain  the  house,  but  it  is  the  woman 
who  plans  and  manages  the  home.  It  is  her  busi- 
ness to  see  that  the  family  lives  in  a  sanitary  and  an 
attractive  house ;  that  every  member  of  the  family 


viii  TO  THE  STUDENT 

has  clean,  properly  selected  and  well  cooked  food ; 
that  every  one  is  suitably  clothed ;  that  the  family 
income  is  wisely  spent,  and  that  all  hi  the  home  are 
helped  to  lead  a  happy  and  useful  life. 

No  girl  should  consider  the  making  and  managing 
of  a  home  an  easy  piece  of  work,  for  in  fact  nothing 
is  harder  to  do  and  to  do  well. 

When  the  girl  takes  work  hi  school  and  college 
that  covers  all  phases  of  home-making,  we  say  that 
she  is  taking  a  course  in  Home  Economics, 


SUGGESTIONS 

WHEN  planning  a  course  in  Home  Economics  for 
any  school  it  is  essential  that  the  teacher  should  know 
from  what  kinds  of  homes  the  students  come ;  what 
is  the  average  income  of  the  families  of  these  girls ; 
what  nationalities  they  represent ;  what  is  the  social 
life  of  the  neighborhood.  It  is  impracticable  to 
follow  any  textbook,  page  by  page,  without  first 
knowing  whether  the  lesson-plans  suit  the  students 
to  whom  they  are  presented.  When  the  teacher 
knows  the  neighborhood,  she  can  wisely  select  and 
arrange  the  parts  of  the  book  to  be  assigned. 

In  many  cases  the  recipes  outlined  in  this  book 
should  be  changed ;  and  in  no  case  should  they  be 
used  as  presented  when  the  teacher  has  recipes 
which  she  has  tested  and  knows  to  be  good,  and 
which  may  be  used  to  illustrate  the  principle  that  is 
under  discussion. 

The  Foods  and  Cookery  lessons  are  outlined  on 
the  meal  basis,  making  the  meal  the  project,  while 
the  lessons  on  various  foods  are  the  problems  to  be 
studied  before  the  project  is  completed.  It  is  de- 
sirable that  the  laboratory  equipment  should  include 
dining-room  equipment,  but  when  that  is  not  avail- 
able, serving  the  meal  on  a  supply-table  or  at  the 
individual  desks  may  be  the  plan  used.  In  any 
case  the  girls  should  be  urged  to  try  the  work  at 
home,  making  reports  on  the  work  done. 


x  SUGGESTIONS 

Lessons  on  the  house  and  its  care  are  correlated 
with  the  other  work  whenever  possible. 

The  book  is  divided  into  sections  instead  of 
lessons,  thus  giving  the  teacher  the  opportunity  to 
use  as  much  or  as  little  as  is  desired  at  any  one  time, 
since  the  amount  of  time  allowed  for  Home  Eco- 
nomics varies  greatly  in  different  schools. 

The  "Home  Problems  and  Questions"  may  furnish 
material  for  lessons  if  plenty  of  time  is  allotted  to 
this  course,  or  may  be  used  only  as  work  to  be  done 
outside  of  class  hours. 

Illustrations  and  exhibit  material  that  can  be 
secured  will  help  to  make  the  work  more  interesting. 
The  following  firms  furnish  "school  exhibits"  that 
will  be  found  useful:  E.  C.  Bridgman,  61  Warren 
St.,  New  York  City,  meat  charts ;  Hershey  Choco- 
late Company,  Hershey,  Pa.,  chocolate  products; 
Diamond  Crystal  Salt  Company,  St.  Clair,  Mich., 
folder  showing  how  salt  is  prepared ;  Pillsbury 
Flour  Mills  Company,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  wheat- 
flour  manufacture;  Walter  Baker  &  Company, 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  chocolate  products ;  The  Ameri- 
can Silver  Company,  Silversmith  Building,  Chicago, 
111.,  "The  Evolution  of  a  Teaspoon"  (50  cents 
postage) ;  Washburn  Crosby  Company,  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.,  flour  exhibit ;  The  Walter  M.  Lowney 
Company,  Boston,  Mass.,  chocolate ;  Wilson  & 
Company,  Chicago,  111.,  meat  charts,  and  recipes 
for  cooking  meat. 

In  addition  to  the  reference-books  that  should  be 
found  in  the  school  library  there  are  bulletins  which 
are  very  valuable  as  reference  material.  Write  to 
the  following  addresses  and  ask  that  publications  be 
sent  to  you  and  your  name  put  on  their  permanent 


SUGGESTIONS  xi 

mailing  list :  Division  of  Home  Economics,  Bureau 
of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Children's 
Bureau,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.  C. ; 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. ; 
United  States  Public  Health  Service,  Treasury  De- 
partment, Washington,  D.  C. ;  Federal  Board  for 
Vocational  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  all 
State  universities  and  agricultural  colleges ;  Ameri- 
can Home  Economics  Association,  1211  Cathedral 
Street,  Baltimore,  Md.,  "The  Journal  of  Home 
Economics"  ($2  per  year).  In  writing  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  ask  also  for  a  list  of  Farmers' 
Bulletins  and  for  publications  issued  by  the  Office 
of  Home  Economics. 


CONTENTS 


PREFACE v 

To  THE  STUDENT      ........  vii 

SUGGESTIONS ix 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS xv 

PRELIMINARY  LESSONS 

Processes  Used  in  Cooking 3 

Some  Points  about  Food 7 

The  Kitchen 10 

Apparatus  for  the  Kitchen 16 

Dishwashing        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .21 

PROJECT  I  —  BREAKFAST 

The  Breakfast  Plan 27 

Beverages 30,  34 

Fruit 37 

Milk 39 

Cereals 44 

Bread 46,  51 

Eggs 56 

The  Dining  Room 60 

Table  Manners 63 

Style  of  Serving •  ,     •        .67 

PROJECT  II  —  SUPPER  OR  LUNCHEON 

The  Plan  for  Supper  or  Luncheon       ....      70 

Meat  Substitutes 73,  76 

Salads         .        .  '      .        .        .        .•"..".        *      80 

Dried  Fruits .        .      84 

Quick  Breads      -.        .        .  .        .        .        .87 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGB 

Cake   .        .        .        .        ,        .        .        .        ,        .      91 
The  School  Lunch       .        .        .        .        .        .        .      95 

PROJECT  III  —  DINNER 

The  Dinner  Plan 101 

Vegetables 106 

The  Potato Ill 

Other  Starchy  Foods 114 

Meat 119,  123 

Soups ,        ....     130 

Poultry,  Game  and  Fish      .         .         .1        ."       .        .133 

Desserts I       ...     138 

The  Daily  Meals  of  the  Family  Group        .      ,  .___     .     143 

PROJECT  IV  —  FOOD  PRESERVATION 

The  Preservation  of  Foods  .        .      .. .        .     ^       .  153 

Canning       . 157 

Jelly-making        . 162 

PROJECT  V  —  CHRISTMAS  LESSONS  .        .        .        .        .166 

PROJECT  VI  —  SUPPLEMENTARY  LESSONS 

The  Care  of  the  House 169,  172 

Food  for  the  Sick       *        .        .     ^       .        .        .176 

INDEX  183 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  Canning-club  Winner Frontispiece 

PAGE 

A  Cooking  Laboratory  in  a  Rural  School  ....  3 

Card-file  Cook  Book  .        .        .        .'       .        ....  4 

One  Type  of  Cooking-apron  —  Kimono  Style     ...  6 

Kitchen  Equipment .  9 

A  Convenient  Kitchen l     .        .11 

"Routing  Lines"  in  a  Kitchen 12 

"Routing  Lines"  in  a  Well  Arranged  Kitchen   ...  14 

Circulation  of  Air  around  Oven .17 

Tireless  Gas  Range 18 

The  Fireless  Cooker   .        .        .  .        .        .20 

One-piece  Kitchen  Sink,  an  Excellent  Type        ...  22 

Circulation  of  Air  in  Two  Common  Types  of  Refrigerator .  25 

Three  Types  of  Coffee-pots 32 

Sandwiches  made  in  Different  Shapes         ....  36 

Equipment  for  Bread-making     .    -   .        .        .        .        .  48 

Bread-mixer       ...        .        .        .        .        .        .50 

Good  Loaves  of  Bread        .        .        .        ....  52 

Bread  Pans,  Bread-stick  Pans  and  Baking-sheet        .        .  54 

Folding  the  Omelet  as  it  Comes  from  the  Pan   ...  59 

Proper  Way  to  Hold  Knife  and  Fork         ...        ,     .   .  64 

Arrangement  of  " Cover "  for  Dinner       -T--      .  66 

Serving-dish  Passed  to  the  Left .        .        .        .        .        .  68 

Correct  Method  of  Holding  Soup  or  Bouillon  Spoon  .        .  72 

A  Bean-pot  Used  for  Baking  Beans   .....  78 

Food-grinder      .        .        i|j 79 

Three  Salads  82 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Cake-mixer        .        .        .        .        .        .        .-        .        .92 

Lunch-box .        . .       .        .        .  ...        .96 

Busy  Cooks  in  a  Rural  School 98 

Deep-fat  Kettle,  with  Frying-Basket          ....     103 
No.  2,  Croquettes.    No.  3,  Meat  Loaf.    No.  5,  Pea  Sand- 
wiches  104 

American  Meat-cutting  Chart  —  Beef  .  .  .  .124 
American  Meat-cutting  Chart  —  Veal  .  .  .  .125 
American  Meat-cutting  Chart  —  Lamb  .  .  .  126 

American  Meat-cutting  Chart  —  Pork       .        .        . ,       .     127 

Serving  the  Dinner  with  a  Tea-cart    .        .        .        . .144 

Cold-pack  Canning .-          154 

Types  of  Canners       .        .        .        ...        .        .     157 

Types  of  Jars  Used  in  Canning  .     ' 158 

Attractive  Jars  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables    .        .        .        .159 

Types  of  Jelly  Glasses 163 

Pasteboard  House,  with  Furnishings 173 

Invalid's  Tray,  Supported  by  Pillow 177 

Invalid's  Tray,  Well  Arranged   .        .        .     -  .        .        .178 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY,  AND  THE  CARE 
OF  THE  HOUSE 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

AND 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  HOUSE 


PROCESSES  USED  IN  COOKING 

Food  is  cooked :  (1)  to  improve  its  appearance, 
(2)  to  improve  its  flavor,  (3)  to  make  some  food- 
stuffs more  digestible,  and  (4)  to  kill  micro- 
organisms. 


A  COOKING  LABORATORY  IN  A  RURAL  SCHOOL 

The  first  cooking  that  was  done  by  primitive  man 
was  the  roasting  of  game  by  the  open  fire  and 
the  parching  of  corn  on  hot  stones,  both  processes 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


requiring    no    cooking    equipment.     Before    water 
could  be  used  as  a  cooking  medium,  primitive  woman 

had  to  begin  pot- 
tery-making and 
basket-weaving ;  she 
had  to  have  utensils 
which  would  hold 
the  water.  Food 
was  first  cooked  in 
water  by  placing 
hot  stones  in  the 
water  with  the  food, 
not  by  placing  the 
utensil  containing 
the  water  over  the 
fire.  Some  pro- 
cesses used  in  camp 
cookery  are  modified 
forms  of  primitive 
cooking. 

processes  at  our  command  to-day  are : 
I.  "Direct , application  of  heat. 
' '  jl . ;  Ettpilihg  :   cooking  over  a  hot  fire,  exposing 
the  surfaces  of  food  to  the  direct  heat, 
with  short  cooking  of  the  interior  of  the 
food  ;  example,  broiled  beefsteak. 
2.   Roasting  :  cooking  by  an  open  fire,  exposing 
the  surface  to  the  direct  heat,  but  allow- 
ing a  long  period  of  cooking  for  the  in- 
terior  of   the   food ;    example,    a   roast 
cooked  under  the  direct  gas  flame  in  an 
oven. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  popular  use  of 
the  word  " roasting",  as  applied  to  meat 


CARD-FILE  COOK  BOOK 

One  card  is  to  be  used  for  each  recipe. 
Card  may  be  hung  up  in  a  convenient 
place  while  in  use. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  5 

cooked  in  an  oven,  is  incorrect.     "  Roast 
chicken"   and  " roast   beef"    are  really 
baked  meats. 
II.   Application  by  means  of  heated  air. 

Baking  :  cooking  in  a  heated  oven ;  example, 
baked  bread. 

III.  Application  by  means  of  heated  water. 

1.  Boiling:  cooking  in  boiling  water ;  example, 

boiled  potatoes. 

2.  Stewing  or  simmering  :    cooking  in  water 

below  the  boiling-point;    example,  beef 
stew. 

IV.  Application  by  means  of  steam. 

Steaming  :  (a)  cooking  in  a  utensil  into  which 
steam  passes;  example,  steamed  pudding; 
(6)  cooking  in  a  closed  utensil  surrounded 
by  steam ;  example,  milk  heated  in  double- 
boiler. 
V.  Application  by  means  of  heated  fat. 

1.  Sautelng :    cooking  in  a  small  quantity  of 

fat ;  example,  browned  potatoes. 

2.  Frying  :  cooking  in  hot  fat  deep  enough  to 

cover  the  food ;   example,  croquettes. 
VI.  Application  by  means  of  heated  metal. 

1.   Pan-broiling:    cooking  in  a  frying-pan  or 
on  a  griddle  without  the  addition  of  fat ; 
example,  broiled  bacon. 
VII.   Combination  processes. 

1.  Braising:    a  combination  of  stewing  and 

baking ;  example,  casserole  of  beef. 

2.  Fricasseeing :    a  combination  of  saut&ng 

and  stewing ;  example,  fricasseed  chicken. 

In  all  cooking  great  care  must  be  taken  to  follow 

directions   carefully.     When   tested  recipes   fail,   it 


6  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

is  usually  the  fault  of  the  cook  and  not  the  fault  of 
the  recipe.  Cooking  becomes  much  more  interesting 
when  one  understands  why  certain  processes  are 
followed,  and  in  the  laboratory  work  in  a  school 

course  this  is  one  of  the 
important  things  to  learn. 
Every  girl  should  learn 
to  work  accurately  yet 
quickly,  making  only 
what  motions  are  neces- 
sary, thereby  saving  time 
and  energy.  Sometimes 
there  is  only  one  "best" 
way  to  do  a  thing;  in 
other  cases  there  may  be 
several  equally  good,  and 
it  is  always  wise  to  use 
methods  that  are  con- 
sidered the  best  by  ex- 
perts. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  WORK  IN 
LABORATORY 

Personal  appearance : 

1.  A  wash  dress  is 
always  to  be  preferred  in 
the  school  laboratory  or 
home  kitchen. 

ONE  TYPE  OF  COOKING- APRON  ~      ,Trl  ..  111 

—  KIMONO  STYLE  2.   White  aprons  should 

be  worn  in  the  cooking 

laboratory.     There  are  several  types  that  may  be  used. 
3.   Holders  for  lifting  hot  dishes,  and  individual  hand 
towels,  should  always  be  used  by  every  student. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  7 

4.  The  hair  should  be  brushed  back  and  fastened  so 
that  it  does  not  fall  in  the  face.     If  white  caps  are  worn 
they  should  be  pulled  down  to  cover  the  front  of  the 
hair. 

5.  The  hands  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  the 
nails  scrubbed  with  a  brush  and  cleaned  thoroughly 
before  you  begin  any  cooking.     When  cooking,  wash 
your  hands  whenever  they  become  sticky  or  soiled. 

6.  Do  not  wear  rings,  bracelets,  or  other  jewelry 
in  the  kitchen. 

Directions  for  work  should  include  : 

Assignment  to  desks. 

Checking  equipment. 

Discussion  of  rules  regarding  care  of  towels,  desks, 
implements,  etc. 

Explanation  of  the  kind  of  notebooks,  reference  books, 
or  textbooks  required. 


SOME  POINTS  ABOUT  FOOD 

When  people  or  animals  go  without  food  too  long, 
they  lose  flesh  and  become  very  weak;  finally  all 
motion  of  the  body  ceases.  The  eating  of  proper  food 
is  very  important  if  the  body  is  to  be  kept  well  and 
strong. 

Food  makes  muscle,  fat,  bone,  blood,  hair  and 
teeth ;  it  produces  the  energy  which  is  needed  for 
all  movements  of  the  body,  and  it  also  supplies  the 
warmth  required.  Only  a  part  of  the  food  is  used 
by  the  body  for  the  purposes  named,  and  such  parts 
are  called  foodstuffs  or  the  food  principles. 

There  are  five  main  classes  of  foodstuffs.  In 
some  foods  only  one  class  of  foodstuffs  is  found, 
while  in  other  foods  several  or  all  of  the  foodstuffs 
may  be  present. 


8  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

The  five  groups  of  foodstuffs  are : 

1.  Protein,  used  in  the  body  for  body-building, 

and  to  produce  energy  and  warmth.  It  is 
present  in  such  foods  as  meat,  milk,  cheese, 
cereals  and  legumes. 

2.  Carbohydrates j  used  in  the  body  to  produce 

energy  and  warmth.  They  are  found  in  such 
foods  as  potatoes,  rice,  fruits,  cereals  and 
legumes. 

3.  Fat,  used  in  the  body  to  produce  energy  and 

warmth.  It  is  found  in  large  amounts  in 
such  foods  as  butter,  cream,  olive  oil  and  fat 
meat. 

4.  Minerals,  used  in  the  body  for  body-building, 

and  found  in  most  foods. 

5.  Water,  used  in  the  body  to  help  in  digesting 

the  food  and  in  carrying  away  waste  material 
from  the  organs  of  the  body,  thus  keeping 
the  body  in  a  healthy  condition.  Water  is 
found  in  practically  all  foods  in  either  large 
or  small  amounts. 

Besides  these  five  foodstuffs  there  is  found  in  some 
foods  a  very  important  class  of  substances  called 
vitamines.  Little  is  known  about  the  vitamines 
except  that  there  are  probably  two  kinds,  and  that 
they  are  necessary  for  the  body  growth  and  also  to 
keep  the  body  in  health.  One  kind  is  found  in  butter, 
egg-yolk  and  such  vegetables  as  lettuce,  spinach  and 
dandelions.  The  other  kind  is  present  in  vegetables, 
fruits  and  whole  cereals.  Milk  contains  both  kinds. 
When  the  meals  for  the  day  are  planned,  foods 
must  be  selected  that  will  furnish  some  of  each  of  the 
foodstuffs  and  vitamines,  so  that  the  body  shall 
not  lack  material  for  growth,  warmth  and  energy. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  9 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
MEASUREMENTS 

Careful  measuring  or  weighing  of  the  ingredients  used 
in  a  recipe  is  very  necessary  if  the  results  are  to  be  of  the 
best.  The  utensils  commonly  used  for  measuring  foods 
are:  scales,  measuring-cup,  measuring-spoons,  table- 
spoons and  teaspoons.  In  measuring  dry  materials,  fill 


KITCHEN  EQUIPMENT 

Double-boiler,  vegetable-press,  scales,  oven  and  chemical  thermometers, 
measuring-cups,  spatula,  wooden  spoon  and  bread-rack. 

the  measure  and  level  off  the  top  with  a  knife.  When 
one  half  teaspoon  is  desired,  divide  the  material  length- 
wise of  the  spoon  and  scrape  out  one  half.  For  one 
fourth  teaspoon  divide  crosswise  the  remaining  half. 

Experiment : 

Use  water  for  the  following : 

1.  To  find  the  number  of  teaspoons  in  one  tablespoon. 

2.  To  find  the  number  of  tablespoons  in  one  cup. 

3.  To  find  the  number  of  cups  in  one  pint. 
Use  sugar  for  the  following : 

1.  To  find  the  number  of  tablespoons  in  one  cup. 

2.  To  find  the  number  of  cups  in  one  pound. 


10  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Use  flour  for  the  following : 

1.  Fill  the  cup  by  dipping  it  into  the  flour ;  weigh. 

2.  Fill  the  cup  by  using  a  spoon ;  weigh. 

3.  Sift  the  flour,  fill  the  cup  by  using  a  spoon ;  weigh. 
Use  salt  for  the  following : 

1.   Measure   one   half,  one   fourth,  and   one  eighth 
teaspoon. 

BAKED  STUFFED  PEPPERS 

Cut  a  thick  slice  from  the  stem-end  of  each  pepper, 
remove  all  the  seeds,  wash  thoroughly  and  let  drain.  Use 
enough  stale  bread  crumbs  to  fill  the  peppers ;  add  salt 
to  taste,  as  much  butter  as  desired  and  enough  water  to 
slightly  moisten  the  crumbs.  Heat  this  mixture  until  the 
butter  is  melted.  Fill  the  peppers.  Place  them  in  a 
baking-dish  in  an  upright  position,  and  on  top  of  each 
place  a  small  square  of  bacon.  Put  water  in  baking-dish 
one  half  inch  in  depth.  Bake  slowly  for  forty-five 
minutes  or  until  tender. 

Have  you  ever  seen  green  peppers  used  in  any  other 
way?  Perhaps  some  one  can  bring  to  school  a  good 
recipe  that  may  be  copied  in  the  class  notebook  and  tried 
at  home  by  other  members  of  the  class. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  For  what  purpose  is  food  used  in  the  body? 

2.  Name  the  five  foodstuffs  (food  principles). 

3.  Name  some  foods  in  which  each  is  found. 

4.  Do  foods  ever  contain  more  than  one  foodstuff? 

5.  Name  one  food  in  which  vitamines  are  found. 


THE   KITCHEN 

The  kitchen  is  a  workshop  where  food  is  cared  for, 
prepared,  cooked  and  served. 

The  most  convenient  kitchen  has  windows  or  doors 
on  two  sides  of  the  room,  so  that  when  these  are 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


11 


open,  a  cross  draft  of  air  clears  the  room  of  smoke 
and  odors. 

The  kitchen  should  be  the  cleanest  room  in  the 
house.  The  most  sanitary  kitchen  has  walls  finished 
in  material  that  can  be  washed,  such  as  oil  paint  or 
tile.  Walls  and  woodwork  should  be  light  in  color, 
because  this  makes  the  room  seem  more  cheerful  and 


A  CONVENIENT  KITCHEN 
With  built-in  ironing-board,  ice-box  and  work-table. 

also  makes  it  easy  to  "see  the  dirt",  which  then  may 
be  removed. 

Hard-wood  floors  may  be  oiled  or  waxed  and  used 
without  covering.  Soft-wood  floors  may  be  covered 
with  linoleum  or  cork  carpet,  or  they  may  be  painted. 

The  kitchen  should  have  built-in  cupboards  with 
plenty  of  space  for  utensils. 

The  sink,  with  a  drain  board  at  each  end,  should 
be  set  where  there  is  plenty  of  light,  and  it  should 


Dining  Room 

"ROUTING  LINES"  IN  A  KITCHEN 

A  wheel- tray  would  be  a  convenience  in  removing  dishes  from  the 
dining  room.  The  refrigerator  would  be  more  convenient  if  built  into 
the  wall. 

12 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  13 

be  open  underneath  to  avoid  the  dampness  often 
found  in  sink  cupboards. 

The  kitchen  may  have  a  built-in  ice-box  arranged 
to  be  iced  from  the  outside  of  the  house.  Some 
kitchens  have  a  dumb  waiter  to  the  basement. 

If  an  ironing-board  is  used  in  the  kitchen,  it  may  be 
built  into  a  space  in  the  wall,  being  let  down  when 
needed  and  folded  back  when  not  in  use. 

Other  devices  sometimes  found  in  the  kitchen  are : 
a  closet  for  cleaning  implements,  such  as  broom, 
bucket  and  brushes;  a  cupboard  for  the  leaves  of 
the  dining-table,  and  a  built-in  kitchen  cabinet. 
There  may  also  be  a  pantry. 

Each  housekeeper  decides  for  herself  how  to  make 
the  kitchen  a  well  arranged  and  equipped  workshop. 
In  a  well  arranged  kitchen  the  equipment  is  so 
placed  that  the  housekeeper  can  use  it  without  losing 
time  or  wasting  strength  in  walking. 

HOME  PROBLEMS  AND   QUESTIONS 

Make  a  drawing  of  your  home  kitchen,  showing 
where  the  sink,  the  cupboards,  the  table,  the  stove 
and  other  equipment  are  placed. 

Notice  with  care  the  steps  taken  by  a  person 
preparing  breakfast,  and  then  make  dotted  lines 
on  your  drawing  to  show  where  she*  has  walked. 
Such  a  line  is  called  a  " routing  line." 

Do  you  think  any  of  the  equipment  could  be 
changed  to  make  the  kitchen  more  convenient? 

Bring  your  drawing  to  school  for  discussion. 


14 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


"ROUTING  LINES"  IN  A  WELL  ARRANGED  KITCHEN 

If  the  refrigerator  were  built  into  the  wall  it  could  be  filled  from  the 
porch  outside. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  15 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

STUDY   OF   STOVES 
Experiment : 

Examine  the  stoves  to  be  used  in  the  laboratory. 
If  a  gas  range  : 

1.  What  kinds  of  ovens  are  there  ? 

2.  Is  there  a  pilot  to  use  when  lighting  the  ovens? 

3.  Do  the  oven  doors  fasten  tightly? 

4.  Does  the  top  burner  have  a  stationary  or  movable 

mixer  ? 

5.  If  there  is  a  movable  mixer,  light  the  gas  burner 

and  observe  the  color  of  the  flame ;  turn  the 
mixer  and  observe  the  flame. 

6.  What  color  should  the  flame  be  to  give  the  most 

heat? 

7.  Place  a  bright  clean  kettle,  containing  a  small 

amount  of  water,  over  the  yellow  flame. 
What  happens  to  the  outside  of  the  kettle  ? 

8.  What  is  the  use  of  the  mixer  ? 

9.  How  is  the  top  burner  removed  for  cleaning? 
10.   Can  other  parts  be  removed  for  cleaning  ? 

If  a  coal  or  wood  range  : 

1.  Examine  the  firebox  to  see  how  it  is  constructed. 

2.  Where  is  the  ash-pan?     How  are  the  ashes  re- 

moved ? 

3.  Find  the  dampers  on  the  stove,  and  determine 

the  use  of  each. 

4.  For  what  is  the  stovepipe  used  ? 

5.  How  does  the  heat  warm  the  oven? 

6.  Lay  the  fire  in  the  following  manner.     Clean  the 

firebox  and  ash-pan,  crumple  paper  and  put  a 
generous  layer  over  the  bottom  of  the  fire- 
box; place  kindling  on  top  of  the  paper  in 
such  a  way  that  the  air  passes  between  the 
pieces ;  place  one  large  or  two  small  shovelfuls 
of  coal  or  sticks  of  stove  wood  on  top  of  the 


16  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

kindling.  How  shall  the  drafts  be  arranged 
before  the  fire  is  lighted?  Clean  the  top  of 
the  stove  before  lighting  the  fire. 

ORANGEADE 

Juice  of  one  orange  1|  tbsp.  sugar 

§  tsp.  lemon  juice  f  c.  water 

Mix  ingredients  thoroughly.  Perhaps  the  mixture 
may  need  straining.  Chill  before  serving. 

Fruitade  or  lemonade  may  be  made  also. 

APPARATUS  FOR  THE   KITCHEN 

Stoves  are  of  various  types  and  must  be  selected 
to  suit  the  kind  of  fuel  to  be  used  and  the  size  of  the 
kitchen  in  which  they  are  to  be  placed. 

A  fuel  is  a  substance  which  when  burned  produces 
heat,  and  it  is  this  heat  that  cooks  food  when  applied 
to  it. 

Wood,  coal,  gasoline,  kerosene,  manufactured 
and  natural  gas,  are  the  fuels  commonly  used. 
Electricity  is  also  used  for  cooking,  but  is  not  a  fuel. 
The  stove  is  the  apparatus  in  which  the  fuel  is 
burned  and  through  which  the  heat  is  given  off. 

In  selecting  a  stove  or  range,  choose  one  that  is  plain 
in  design  and  has  little  nickel  finish.  A  stove 
covered  with  decorations  is  hard  to  keep  clean. 
Many  gas  and  electric  ranges  have  the  oven  built 
on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  stove.  The  oven  is 
easier  to  use  in  this  position  than  when  underneath 
the  burners. 

Gas  and  electric  stoves  are  now  made  with  fireless 
cooking  attachments  for  both  boiling  and  baking. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


17 


While  these  are  more  expensive  in  price  than  other 

types,  they  are  great  savers  of  fuel  when  properly  used. 

A  stove  must  be  in  good  condition  if  it  is  to  do 

good  cooking.     A  coal  or  wood  range  must  have 


CIRCULATION  OF  AIR  AROUND  OVEN 

soot  and  ashes  removed  regularly  from  the  inside  of 
pipes,  firebox  and  ash-pit.  Whenever  gas  burners 
cannot  be  regulated  to  burn  without  a  yellow  flame, 
they  must  be  taken  apart  and  cleaned  by  boiling  in 
a  weak  solution  of  soda. 
There  should  be  in  the  kitchen  a  supply  of  cooking 


18 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


utensils  of  the  right  kind  to  meet  any  need.  Good 
utensils  to  use  for  boiling,  stewing  and  steaming  are 
made  of  aluminum  or  enamel  ware  of  good  grade; 
for  baking,  earthenware,  glass,  sheet  iron  and  tin 
are  used ;  iron  is  used  for  sauteing  and  frying. 

Aluminum,  wooden,  or  heavily  plated  tin  spoons 
are  needed  in  the  kitchen.  These  are  better  than 

enameled  spoons  be- 
cause enamel  is  apt 
to  chip  off  when  the 
spoon  strikes  hard 
surfaces.  Steel 
knives  are  best  with 
the  steel  blade  run- 
ning through  and 
riveted  into  the 
wooden  handle. 
One  or  more  spatu- 
las should  be  a  part 
of  the  equipment. 

Any  device  that 
aids  in  doing  work 
as  well,  but  more  quickly  and  easily  than  it  has  been 
done  before,  is  a  labor-saving  device. 

Fireless  cookers,  pressure  and  steam  cookers, 
cake  and  bread-mixers,  food-grinders  and  double- 
boilers  are  examples  of  labor-saving  devices  that 
are  useful  in  the  kitchen.  Every  housekeeper  should 
have  as  many  labor-saving  devices  as  possible. 


FIRELESS  GAS  RANGE 

Observe  "hood"  under  which  fireless 
cooking  may  be  done.  The  oven  may  also 
be  made  "fireless." 


HOME  PROBLEMS  AND  QUESTIONS 

Find  the  price  of  the  following :    a  gas  range,  a 
coal  or  wood   range,   a   two-compartment   fireless 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  19 

cooker,  food-grinders,  double-boilers,  spatulas,  re- 
frigerators, garbage-cans. 

Look  through  the  advertisements  in  the  magazines 
and  papers,  at  home  or  in  the  public  library,  and 
make  a  list  of  other  labor-saving  devices  and  cooking 
utensils  not  named  in  the  lesson.  How  many  of 
these  have  you  seen  used  ? 

Bring  the  lists  to  school  for  discussion. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

TEMPERATURES 
Experiment : 

Examine   the   thermometer   to   be   used   in   taking 
temperatures. 

1.  Is  it  a  centigrade  or  Fahrenheit  thermometer? 

2.  What    is    "boiling-point"    on   each?     freezing- 

point  ? 

3.  (a)  What  is  the  temperature  of  one  cup  of  water  in 

the  top  part  of  a  double-boiler  after  the  water 
in  the  lower  part  has  been  boiling  twenty 
minutes?  Continue  boiling.  Does  the  water 
in  the  top  part  of  the  double-boiler  ever  reach 
boiling-point?  (6)  What  is  the  temperature  of 
one  cup  of  water  in  a  small  saucepan  over  direct 
heat  when  the  first  small  bubbles  appear  on  the 
surface?  when  the  large  bubbles  come  to  the 
surface  and  break?  when  the  fire  is  turned 
higher  and  the  bubbles  form  and  break  more 
quickly?  The  vapor  which  comes  off  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  is  called  steam.  Continue 
boiling  the  water  for  a  few  minutes;  remove 
from  the  fire  and  measure  the  water.  What 
has  happened  ? 

Examine  the  fireless  cooker,  if  there  is  one  in  the 
laboratory;   if  not,  the  class  may  make  one,  following 


20  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 


THE  FIRELESS  COOKER 
Placing  the  heated  stone  in  the  cooker. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  21 

the  directions  given  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  771, 
"  Home-made  Fireless  Cookers  and  their  Use ",  ob- 
tained by  writing  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C. 

ROLLED    OATS 

3  c.  boiling  water        1  c.  rolled  oats        1  tsp.  salt 

Heat  water  to  boiling  point  by  placing  the  top  part  of 
the  double-boiler  over  direct  heat ;  add  salt ;  stir  in  the 
rolled  oats.  Cook  ten  minutes.  Place  over  water  in  the 
double-boiler ;  cook  one  hour. 

This  may  be  cooked  in  the  fireless  cooker. 

If  the  fireless  cooker  has  a  large  compartment,  fill  the 
large  kettle  half  full  of  boiling  water,  place  the  prepared 
oatmeal  in  a  small  tightly  covered  kettle,  and  set  on  the 
wire  rack  placed  inside  the  large  kettle,  so  that  the  hot 
water  is  below  the  top  of  the  small  kettle.  Close  the 
cooker  and  do  not  open  until  the  food  is  needed  for  the 
meal.  Cereals  may  be  put  in  the  fireless  cooker  at  night 
and  will  then  be  ready  for  breakfast  in  the  morning. 

DISHWASHING 

The  housekeeper  sometimes  considers  dishwashing 
" drudgery",  and  it  may  be  so  when  poor  equipment 
is  used  for  the  task,  or  when  she  does  not  know  how 
to  do  the  work  correctly.  The  best  type  of  house- 
keeper feels  that  every  part  of  her  work  is  worth 
doing  well,  and  whenever  she  thinks  about  why  she 
is  doing  the  task,  it  ceases  to  be  drudgery.  To  know 
the  reason  for  washing  dishes  helps  to  make  the 
work  more  interesting.  Dishes  are  washed  to  make 
them  more  sanitary  and  more  pleasing  to  use.  It 
is  not  safe  nor  pleasant  to  eat  from  dirty  or  sticky 
dishes. 


22  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

The  equipment  needed  for  washing  dishes  consists 
of  plenty  of  clean  hot  water,  good  soap,  or  soap 
powder,  scouring-powder,  dishpans,  dish-drainer, 
dishcloth  and  mops,  dish-towels,  bottle  and  sink 
brushes;  and  there  may  be  added  a  plate-scraper, 
a  metal  dishcloth  and  soap-shaker. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  water,  hard  and  soft.  When 
soap  will  not  make  good  suds  in  the  water,  it  is 
because  the  water  is  "hard."  Hard  water  is  water 
that  has  taken  up  lime  or  iron  from  the  soil,  and  is 


ONE-PIECE  KITCHEN  SINK;    an  excellent  type 

the  kind  that  usually  comes  from  wells.  Rain 
water  is  soft  water,  and  is  better  for  washing  dishes 
because  soap  makes  a  good  suds  in  it.  If  hard  water 
must  be  used,  borax,  ammonia,  or  a  strong  soap 
powder  or  soap  must  be  added. 

Soap  is  best  for  use  when  it  is  very  dry.     It  may 

be  purchased  by  the  dozen  cakes  or  bars,  or  by  the 

box.     Some  persons  make  "soft"  soap  at  home  by 

boiling  scraps  of  fat  with  lye  made  from  wood  ashes. 

The  steps  in  washing  dishes  correctly  are : 

1.   Remove  the  dishes  from  the  table.     Remove 

the  bits  of  food  from  the  plates  with  the  rubber 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  23 

plate-scraper  or  a  piece  of  paper.     Rinse  off  very 
dirty  dishes.     Pile  together  dishes  that  are  alike. 

2.  Put  to  soak  all  cooking  utensils.     Hot  water 
should  be  put  in  those  which  have  contained  sugar 
or  syrup,  and  cold  water  in  those  which  have  been 
used  with  milk,  eggs,  cereal,  starch  or  flour. 

3.  Pour  hot  water  in  the  dishpan,  make  a  good 
suds  with  the  soap,  use  a  clean  dishcloth  (not  a 
"rag")   or   mop,   and   wash   every  dish   carefully. 
Do  not  have  the  dishpan  full  of  dirty  dishes  while 
washing.     Always  wash  the  cleanest  dishes  first. 

4.  Place   the  washed   dishes  in  a   drain-pan  or 
dish-drier,  being  careful  not  to  crowd  them.     Crowd- 
ing dishes  in  a  pan  is  apt  to  chip  them  and  makes 
it  hard  to  scald  them  thoroughly.     This  pan  or  drier 
should  be  placed  at  the  left  of  the  pan  in  which  the 
dishes  are  washed  because  this  will  save  unnecessary 
motions  in  putting  the  dishes  from  one  into  the  other. 

5.  Rinse    the    dishes    thoroughly    with    boiling 
water,  being  sure  that  each  dish  has  been  rinsed 
inside  and  out.     If  the  dishes  have  been  scalded  in 
a  dish-drier,  it  may  be  set  on  the  drain-board  and  the 
dishes  allowed  to  dry  without  wiping.     The  silver 
and  glass  should  be  washed  first.     They  will  look 
best  when  wiped  and  polished  dry  with  a  towel. 
Some  persons  like  to  dry  all  the  dishes  with  a  towel. 
This  is  a  good  method,  but  it  takes  more  time  than 
drying  them  in  a  rack  or  drier. 

6.  Scrape  out  and  rinse  off  the  cooking  utensils. 
Use  plenty  of  hot  soapy  water  for  washing  them; 
wash  thoroughly,  both  inside  and  out,  scouring  if 
necessary.     Rinse  with  boiling  water  and  wipe  dry. 
Steel  knives  may  be  scoured  with  scouring-powder 
applied  with  a  cork. 


24  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

7.  Wash  off  the  drain-boards  and  tables,  and 
scour  them  with  the  powder  and  a  brush  if  necessary. 
Use  clean  water  for  this.     Wash  out  the  sink  and 
scour  it  with  a  brush  and  scouring-powder  when  the 
soapy  water  will  not  remove  the  stains. 

8.  Wash  the  dish-towels  in  clean  soapy  water, 
removing  all  spots.     Rinse  in  clean  water,  shake 
out  and  pull  into  shape.     Hang  to  dry  on  a  rack  for 
this  purpose  in  the  kitchen,  or  better  still,  hang  out- 
doors in  the  sun.     Wash  and  rinse  the  dishcloth  or 
dish-mop. 

9.  Clean  out  the  dishpan  thoroughly,   wipe  it 
dry  and  put  it  away. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
CARE   OF  EQUIPMENT 

The  Sink 

1.  Find  the  waste-pipe;    the  trap.     Of  what  value  is 
the  trap? 

2.  Of  what  material  is  the  sink  made  ? 

3.  Of  what  material  are  the  drain-boards  made  ? 

4.  Of  what  material  are  the  faucets  made  ? 

5.  To  clean  the  sink : 

(a)  Faucets  —  brass  may  be  cleaned  with  scouring- 
powder.  If  stained,  use  vinegar  or  lemon 
juice  before  scouring ;  nickel  needs  only  wash- 
ing with  soap  and  water. 

(6)  Wash  drain-boards  and  sink;  see  lesson  above 
(Section  7) . 

Every  sink  needs  a  sink-strainer  through  which  dish- 
water or  other  liquids  may  be  poured,  thereby  catching 
all  refuse.  Clean  boiling  water  should  be  poured  down 
the  waste-pipe  after  very  greasy  water. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


25 


The  Refrigerator 

1.  Find   the   waste-pipe.     Into   what   does   it   drain? 
Can  it  be  removed  for  cleaning? 

2.  Of  what  material  is  the  lining  of  the  refrigerator? 

3.  What  otlier  parts  of  the  refrigerator  may  be  removed 
when  cleaning? 

4.  To  clean  the  refrigerator : 

(a)  Remove  immediately  any  food  that  has  been 

spilled. 

(6)  Once  a  week  remove  all  food  and  ice ;  take 
out  the  shelves  and  other  parts ;  wash  these 
and  the  inside  of  the  ice-box  with  clean, 


Coldest  Part 


Warm 


J  \ 


Warm 


Warm 


Warmest  Part 


I 


Coldest 
Part 


CIRCULATION  OF  AIR  IN  Two  COMMON  TYPES  OF  REFRIGERATOR 


warm,  soapy  water  and  rinse  with  clean  cold 
water;  a  solution  of  washing  soda  may  be 
poured  down  the  drain-pipe.  Do  the  work  as 
quickly  as  possible. 


26  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

The  Garbage-Can 

If  no  liquid  material  is  placed  in  the  garbage-can,  the 
garbage  may  be  wrapped  in  newspaper  before  placing  in 
the  can.  This  keeps  the  can  in  excellent  condition. 

1.  To  clean,  when  garbage  is  wrapped,  wash  out  with 
clean,  hot,  soapy  water  once  a  week. 

2.  To  clean,  when  garbage  is  not  wrapped,  scrub  with 
a  brush,   using  a   strong  washing-soda   solution;    rinse 
with  boiling  water;    dry  in  the  sun.     A  dirty  garbage- 
can  has  a  bad  smell  and  attracts  flies.     A  garbage-can 
must  always  be  kept  tightly  covered. 


BICED    POTATOES 

Wash  and  peel  a  potato.  Cook  in  boiling  salted  water, 
allowing  J  tsp.  of  salt  to  one  pint  of  water.  Boil  gently. 
When  the  potato  can  be  pierced  to  the  center  easily  with 
a  fork,  remove  from  the  water.  Press  through  the  vege- 
table press  or  ricer  into  a  hot  dish.  Serve. 

MASHED   POTATOES 

To  the  riced  potato  add  two  teaspoons  of  hot  milk; 
one  half  teaspoon  of  butter ;  salt  to  taste.  Beat  with  a 
fork  until  the  mixture  is  light  and  fluffy.  Place  in  a  hot 
dish  and  serve. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  equipment  is  needed  for  washing  dishes  well? 

2.  What  are  the  two  kinds  of  water  used  ? 

3.  Which  is  the  best  kind  to  use  for  dishwashing?    Why? 

4.  How  should  the   dishes  be   prepared  for  washing?    the 
cooking  utensils? 

5.  State  the  steps  in  washing  and  drying  dishes. 

6.  How  should  the  dish-towels  and  dishcloth  be  cared  for 
after  dishwashing? 

7.  Have  you  ever  washed  dishes  by  this  method  ? 

8.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  dishwasher  used  ? 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY      27 

THE  BREAKFAST  PLAN 

There  are  many  types  of  breakfast  that  may  be 
served,  and  every  family  will  have  its  own  particular 
plan  for  this  meal. 

The  foods  generally  used  for  breakfast  are  fruit, 
cereals,  bread  and  beverages,  with  sometimes  egg, 
meat  or  vegetable  dishes. 

The  menu  should  vary  with  (1)  the  time  of  year, 
(2)  the  type  of  work  which  the  members  of  the  family 
are  doing,  (3)  the  kind  of  meal  eaten  the  night  before, 
and  (4)  the  size,  weight  and  age  of  the  members  of 
the  family. 

In  the  summer  it  is  well  to  avoid  eating  much  meat, 
and  meat  can  easily  be  omitted  from  breakfast. 

It  is  well,  also,  to  eat  less  heat-producing  food  in 
summer  than  in  winter,  because  then  the  body  does 
not  need  so  much  heat  to  keep  it  warm. 

When  too  much  food  is  eaten,  a  good  deal  is  lost 
because  some  foodstuffs  cannot  be  stored  in  the  body 
and  must,  therefore,  be  carried  off  from  the  body 
in  the  form  of  waste  material. 

If  a  man  is  doing  hard  work  out  of  doors  he  needs 
more  food  than  does  the  man  who  sits  all  day  at  his 
desk  in  an  office,  because  the  man  in  the  office  does 
not  use  so  much  muscular  energy  in  doing  his  work 
as  does  the  man  who  works  with  his  muscles. 

If  dinner  is  the  meal  served  in  the  evening,  the  family 
does  not  wish  nor  need  much  for  breakfast  the  follow- 
ing morning.  If  a  light  supper  is  the  last  meal  of  the 
day,  then  more  food  should  be  served  for  breakfast. 

The  members  of  the  family  differ  in  size,  weight 
and  age,  and  the  food  eaten  should  vary  in  amount 
and  kind.  The  baby  and  small  child  should  not 


28  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

eat  the  same  food,  nor  so  much,  as  the  man  in  the 
family.  How  then  shall  the  meal  be  planned  to  suit 
each  member  of  the  family?  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
make  a  menu  that  contains  enough  food  of  the  right 
kind  for  the  man,  and  to  have  in  that  menu  some 
food  that  will  suit  the  small  child. 

The   following   are   some   general  suggestions   for 
planning  the  breakfast : 

1.  Breakfast  consisting  of  fruit,  bread  and  bever- 
age;   suitable  for  the  man  who  works  in  an  office 
and  the  woman  who  does  light  work.     For  the  small 
child,  cereal  and  milk  would  have  to  be  added  and 
tea  or  coffee  omitted. 

2.  Breakfast   consisting   of   fruit,    cereal,    bread 
and  beverage;    suitable  for  the  man  who  does  a 
good  deal  of  walking  but  works  indoors,  and  for  the 
woman  who  does  ordinary  housework,  office  work, 
or  teaching.     With  cocoa  or  milk  as  the  beverage, 
this  would  be  good  for  the  small  child,  the  school- 
girl or  boy,  and  the  college  student. 

3.  Breakfast  consisting  of  fruit,  eggs,  bread  and 
a  beverage,  instead  of  No.  2.     Milk  and  cereal,  how- 
ever, should  be  added  for  the  child. 

4.  Breakfast  of  fruit,  cereal,  a  meat  or  egg  dish, 
bread  and  a  beverage;   suitable  for  the  man  doing 
hard  manual  work  out  of  doors,  or  for  women  doing 
hard  manual  work.     The  meat  should  be  omitted 
in  the  child's  diet,  and  milk  or  cocoa  used  as  the 
beverage. 

5.  Breakfast  consisting  of  fruit,  cereal,  meat  or 
egg  dish,  a  vegetable,  bread  and  a  beverage.     This 
breakfast  is  a  very  heavy  meal  and  should  be  eaten 
only  by  a  man  doing  hard  manual  labor  out  of  doors 
in  cold  weather.    Many  families  eating  this  type 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  29 

of  breakfast  do  so  because  they  like  it  and  not 
because  they  need  the  food  in  the  daily  diet.  In 
many  cases  they  would  be  in  better  health  if  less  food 
were  eaten. 


HOME   PROBLEMS   AND   QUESTIONS 

Are  these  good  breakfast  plans  ?    Why  ? 

1 .  For  a  hot  summer    morning :    stewed    fruit, 
sausage,  buckwheat  cakes,  coffee. 

2.  For  a  small  child  :  coffee,  cereal,  meat  dish  and 
hot  biscuit. 

3.  For  a  man  doing  hard  manual  labor  out  of 
doors  :  fruit,  coffee,  toast. 

4.  For  the    schoolgirl :    fruit,   cereal,   cocoa  and 
toast. 

Make  two  good  plans  for  your  breakfast  at  this 
season  of  the  year. 

Make  two  good  plans  for  the  breakfast  of  a  small 
child  at  this  season  of  the  year. 

Bring  these  plans  to  class  for  discussion. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

FRUIT   FOR  BREAKFAST 

ORANGES 

1.  Wash  the  orange,  cut  through  crosswise,  serve  on 
plate. 

2.  Wash  the  orange,  remove  the  skin  and  as  much  of 
the  white  portion  as  possible,  divide  in  sections,  arrange 
attractively  on  plate,  serve. 

3.  Wash  the  orange,  cut  in  halves,  squeeze  out  the 
juice,  using  the  lemon-squeezer ;   put  juice  in  glass,  cool, 
set  on  fruit-plate,  serve. 


30  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

BAKED   APPLE 

Wash  the  apple,  remove  the  core,  leaving  the  apple 
whole,  and  fill  the  cavity  with  sugar.  Raisins  or  nutmeg 
may  be  used  also.  Put  a  little  water  in  the  pan  to  pre- 
vent burning.  Bake  slowly  until  the  apple  is  tender 
when  pierced  with  a  fork. 

BEVERAGES 

Beverages  are  made  by  combining  liquids  and 
flavoring  materials. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  beverages,  examples  of 
which  are  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  lemonade  and  grape 
juice. 

Water  is  the  liquid  used  in  making  most  beverages. 
In  addition  to  the  water  taken  in  beverages  one 
should  drink  a  great  deal  of  pure  water,  because  the 
composition  of  the  body  is  two  thirds  water.  One 
may  go  without  food  for  weeks,  but  it  is  not  possible 
to  live  very  long  without  water.  Most  persons, 
because  of  the  taste,  like  to  drink  hard  water  in 
preference  to  soft  water.  Hard  water  comes  from 
wells  and  deep  springs,  and  has  collected  certain 
mineral  substances  from  the  soil  over  or  through 
which  it  has  come. 

When  the  soil  is  full  of  filth,  the  water  flowing 
through  it  will  be  impure  and  may  be  the  cause  of 
typhoid  fever,  malaria,  or  other  diseases.  Impure 
water  may  be  clear  and  sparkling  in  appearance, 
and  the  only  way  to  be  certain  of  its  purity  is  to 
know  about  the  source  from  which  it  comes.  In 
the  city,  the  water  supply  is  so  carefully  watched 
that  the  water  coming  into  the  house  is  usually  pure. 
If  a  well  is  so  situated  that  the  water  coming  into  it 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  31 

passes  through  soil  into  which  a  barnyard  or  an 
outside  toilet  or  a  pig-pen  is  drained,  it  is  likely  to 
be  dangerous  to  health. 

When  there  is  the  slightest  doubt  about  the 
purity  of  water,  it  should  be  boiled  before  drinking. 

Boiled  water  has  a  flat  taste  because  some  of  the  air 
in  it  has  been  driven  off  by  boiling.  The  taste  may 
be  improved  by  pouring  the  water  back  and  forth 
between  two  pitchers,  thus  forcing  air  into  it  again. 

Ice  is  frozen  water,  and  is  just  as  pure  as  the  water 
from  which  it  was  made.  Ice  from  a  pond  should 
never  be  dissolved  in  drinking-water  or  other  bever- 
ages. Artificial  ice  is  made  by  freezing  water  in 
tanks,  the  freezing  temperature  being  secured  by 
the  evaporation  of  ammonia.  This  ice  should  be 
much  purer  than  ice  from  ponds,  lakes  and  rivers. 

At  school  every  student  should  use  his  or  her  own 
drinking-cup  unless  there  is  a  bubbling  fountain. 
It  is  dangerous  to  drink  out  of  a  cup  that  has  been 
used  by  other  persons,  because  if  any  one  has  a 
disease,  such  as  diphtheria,  sore  throat  or  tubercu- 
losis, it  may  be  given  to  others  who  use  the  same  cup. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

BEVERAGES 
Experiment : 

1.  Examine  coffee  beans,  finely  ground,  and  pulver- 
ized coffee.     What  is  the  price  of  each? 

2.  Examine  samples  of  tea,  both  green  and  black; 
compare  the  color  and  shape  of  the  leaves.     Are  there 
bits  of  stem  or  other  refuse  present?     Compare  prices. 

3.  Examine  cocoa  nibs,  pulverized  cocoa. 

4.  Pour  one  half  cup  of  boiling  water  over  two  tea- 
spoons of  cocoa.     Observe  the  liquid. 


32  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

5.  Mix  together  one  half  cup  of  cold  water  and  two 
teaspoons  of  cocoa;  boil  five  minutes.  Compare  this 
with  No.  4.  What  has  happened  ? 

COCOA 

I  c.  cocoa  1  c.  water 

j  c.  sugar  3  c.  milk 

|  tsp.  salt  Vanilla 

Mix  cocoa,  sugar,  salt  and  water.  Boil  ten  minutes. 
Heat  milk  in  double-boiler,  add  to  this  the  cocoa  paste. 
Cook  twenty  minutes.  Add  vanilla. 

An  attractive  way  to  serve  cocoa  is  to  place  a  spoonful 
of  whipped  cream  on  top  of  each  cup. 

COFFEE 

Coffee  may  be  made  in  several  ways. 
1.   Boiled  coffee,  made  with  egg. 

1  heaping  tbsp.  of  ground  coffee 

1  c.  water 

\  egg-shell  or  \  of  an  egg-white 


THREE  TYPES  OF  COFFEE-POTS 

From  left  to  right :  drip  coffee-pot,  coffee  percolator  and  pot  for  boiled 

coffee. 

Mix  together  coffee  and  egg,  using  a  little  of  the  water ; 
add  the  rest  of  the  water.     Boil  gently  for  three  to  five 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  33 

minutes.     Let   stand   in  warm   place   for  five   minutes. 
Serve.     The  egg  is  used  to  settle  the  grounds. 

2.  Boiled  coffee  without  egg. 

Use  the  same  proportions  as  in  No.  1.  Place  the  ground 
coffee  in  a  cheesecloth  bag,  being  careful  to  pack  it  very  loosely ; 
tie  securely. 

3.  Percolated  coffee. 

Made  in  a  percolator  pot,  constructed  so  that  the  ground 
coffee  is  placed  in  a  container  at  the  top.  The  water  boils  up 
through  a  tube  to  the  ground  coffee,  and  then  drips  back  into  the 
bottom  of  the  pot. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  percolators  sold. 

4.  Drip  coffee. 

Like  coffee  made  in  percolator,  except  that  the  coffee-pot  is 
arranged  so  that  water  must  drip  through  the  ground  coffee 
from  the  top. 

TEA 
1  tsp.  tea  1  c.  water 

Heat  fresh  water  to  boiling-point.  Pour  it  over  the 
tea,  let  stand  in  a  warm  place  three  minutes.  Pour  off 
tea  into  hot  teapot  or  cups.  Serve  at  once. 

Tea  should  never  be  boiled,  nor  the  water  allowed  to 
stand  on  the  tea  leaves  longer  than  three  minutes,  be- 
cause the  longer  it  stands  the  more  tannic  acid  is  present. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  beverage  ? 

2.  Name  some  commonly  used  beverages. 

3.  Why  is  it  important  to  drink  pure  water?  , 

4.  How  should  impure  water  be  treated  when  it  must  be 
used  for  drinking? 

5.  From  what  source  does  the  water   supply  come  that  is 
used  in  your  school  ? 

6.  What  is  ice? 

7.  When  may  ice  be  put  into  beverages? 

8.  Where  does   the   ice  come   from  that   is  used  in  your 
neighborhood?    What  is  the  price  of  one  hundred  pounds? 


34  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

BEVERAGES  (Continued) 

Coffee,  tea,  cocoa  and  chocolate  are  the  beverages 
generally  used  for  breakfast.  Coffee  and  tea  should 
be  used  only  by  grown  persons ;  children  may  take 
cocoa. 

The  coffee-bean  or  berry  is  the  seed  of  a  fruit 
resembling  a  cherry,  and  is  produced  on  an  evergreen 
tree  that  grows  in  nearly  all  tropical  countries. 
Most  of  our  coffee  comes  from  South  America, 
mainly  from  Brazil.  In  preparing  coffee  for  market 
the  cherry-like  fruit  is  allowed  to  ferment  so  that  the 
pulp  surrounding  the  seeds  may  become  soft  and 
can  be  removed.  These  seeds  contain  two  "beans" 
which  grow  with  their  flat  sides  together  and  are 
inclosed  in  a  husk.  This  husk  has  to  be  dried  and 
then  removed,  when  the  beans  fall  apart.  The 
coffee-beans  are  then  shipped  to  the  country  where 
they  are  to  be  sold.  The  beans  are  roasted  to  make 
them  brittle  and  to  develop  flavor,  and  are  sold  to  the 
housekeeper  in  this  form,  or  as  "ground  coffee." 

Coffee  loses  its  flavor  and  aroma  very  quickly 
after  being  ground  if  it  is  left  in  an  open  container, 
and  for  this  reason  some  prefer  to  buy  the  roasted 
coffee-beans  and  grind  them  only  as  needed. 
Ground  coffee  should  be  sold  in  air-tight  cans,  but 
if  sent  from  the  store  in  paper  sacks  should  be- 
emptied  into  air-tight  cans  at  once. 

Coffee  contains  substances  that  are  often  harmful 
for  grown  persons  and  are  never  good  for  children ; 
one  is  caffeine,  a  substance  that  stimulates  the 
nerves ;  another  is  tannic  acid,  which  may  disturb 
digestion. 

Most  of  the  tea  we  use  comes  from  China,  Japan, 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  35 

Ceylon  and  India.  Tea  is  made  from  the  leaves  of 
a  plant  called  Thea.  The  plant  sends  out  four  sets 
of  new  shoots  a  year,  and  the  leaves  from  these 
shoots  are  gathered  and  cured  for  tea. 

There  are  two  types  of  tea,  black  and  green  tea. 
Green  tea  is  made  by  drying  the  tea  leaves  at  a  high 
temperature,  which  causes  them  to  keep  their  green 
color  and  to  curl  up.  Black  tea  is  made  by  allowing 
the  leaves  to  wither  and  ferment,  which  causes  them 
to  turn  dark  before  being  dried.  This  process  gives 
black  tea  a  flavor  different  from  that  of  green  tea. 

Tea  contains  a  substance  called  "theine"  which 
acts  as  a  stimulant  to  the  nerves.  There  is  also 
present  tannic  acid,  which  is  bad  for  the  digestion. 

Cocoa  is  produced  from  the  pod  of  the  cocoa  tree 
which  grows  in  tropical  countries.  The  pod  is  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  cucumber,  and  inside  are  a  large 
number  of  seeds  surrounded  by  pulp.  The  seeds 
are  removed  from  the  pulp  and,  after  being  allowed 
to  ferment  a  few  days,  are  roasted.  The  husk  is 
then  removed  and  the  seed  is  divided  into  two  parts 
which  are  called  "cocoa  nibs." 

When  cocoa  nibs  are  ground  and  pressed  into  a 
cake,  the  cake  is  known  as  chocolate.  This  chocolate 
is  rather  bitter  in  taste  and  is  used  in  cookery. 
When  sugar  is  added  to  the  cake  it  is  called  sweet 
chocolate. 

Cocoa  is  made  from  chocolate  by  removing  a  large 
part  of  the  fat.  It  is  then  ground  and  sold  in  bulk 
or  in  tin  containers.  The  fat  that  is  removed  from 
the  chocolate  is  used  for  cocoa  butter.  Cocoa  has  a 
good  deal  of  food  value,  and  when  served  as  a 
beverage  in  which  milk  is  used  adds  food  value  to  a 
meal. 


36  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
A   RECEPTION   FOR   MOTHERS 

Invite  the  mothers  of  the  girls  to  the  school  for  the 
laboratory  period.  The  members  of  the  class  should  re- 
ceive and  entertain  them.  Refreshments  of  tea,  coffee  or 
cocoa,  sandwiches  and  marguerites,  may  be  prepared 
and  served  by  the  girls. 

MARGUERITES 

12  wafers  £  tsp.  salt 

1  egg-white  \  tsp.  vanilla 

2  tbsp.  powdered  sugar  \  c.  chopped  raisins  or  nuts,  or 

the  two  mixed 

Beat  the  egg  very  stiff.  Sugar  should  be  pressed 
through  a  wire  sieve  before  using.  Add  the  other  in- 
gredients to  the  sugar  and  mix  carefully  with  beaten  egg- 
white.  Spread  on  top  of  the  wafers.  Brown  in  a  moderate 
oven. 

SANDWICHES 

Cut  the  bread  into  very  thin  slices ;  cream  the  butter 
by  mashing  and  beating  with  a  fork.  Butter  the  slices 


SANDWICHES  MADE  IN  DIFFERENT  SHAPES 

of  bread,  add  jelly  if  desired,  lay  the  slices  together  evenly. 
Sandwiches  are  often  cut  into  fancy  shapes,  such  as  round, 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  37 

triangular,  rectangular,  or  square.  The  crust  may  be 
removed,  if  desired.  The  bread  scraps  may  be  saved 
for  a  bread  pudding.  Wrap  the  sandwiches  in  a  dry 
cloth,  then  in  a  slightly  damp  cloth  until  ready  to  serve. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  preparation  of  coffee  for  market. 

2.  How  should  coffee  be  cared  for  after  it  is  purchased  ? 

3.  From  what  countries  does  most  of  the  tea  used  in  this 
country  come  ? 

4.  Describe  the  preparation  of  tea  for  market. 

5.  Why  are  tea  and  coffee  harmful  to  many  people  ? 

6.  Should  children  drink  tea  or  coffee  ? 

7.  What  is  cocoa?  chocolate?  cocoa  nibs? 


FRUIT 

Fruit  is  very  valuable  in  the  diet  and,  if  possible, 
should  be  included  in  the  menu  every  day.  Fresh 
fruit  can  be  purchased  in  the  market  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  Canned  and  dried  fruits  can  always  be 
substituted  when  the  fresh  fruit  is  too  expensive  or 
not  available. 

Fruits  are  composed  largely  of  water  but  contain 
sugar,  which  is  one  form  of  carbohydrate,  very  small 
amounts  of  protein  and  fat,  and  mineral  matter. 
Fruit  also  contains  vitamines.  The  mineral  matter 
in  fruit,  including  iron,  phosphorus,  lime,  magnesia 
and  potash,  is  very  valuable  to  the  body. 

The  botanist  says  that  fruits  are  the  seed-bearing 
parts  of  the  plant,  but  such  foods  as  tomatoes  and 
cucumbers,  which  really  are  fruits,  we  class  as  vege- 
tables. 

When  fruits  are  considered  as  to  their  food  value 
they  are  sometimes  classified  as  (1)  flavor  fruits, 
containing  a  very  large  amount  of  water  and  very 


38  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

small  amounts  of  the  foodstuffs,  and  (2)  food  fruits, 
containing  less  water  and  larger  amounts  of  the 
foodstuffs.  Examples  of  flavor  fruits  are  straw- 
berries and  watermelons.  Examples  of  food  fruits 
are  bananas,  dried  figs  and  dates. 

Most  persons  like  fresh  fruit,  but  it  does  not  agree 
with  everyone.  Cooked  fruit  can  often  be  eaten 
when  the  raw  fruit  cannot,  because  the  cooking 
softens  the  fruit  and  kills  bacteria  that  may  be 
present.  Children  should  be  given  cooked  fruit  in 
preference  to  raw  fruit.  Neither  green  fruit  nor  over- 
ripe fruit  should  be  eaten. 

Fruits  are  least  expensive  when  purchased  in  season, 
that  is,  when  they  are  being  produced  on  the  farms 
and  in  the  gardens  of  the  community.  When  fruits 
have  to  be  shipped  long  distances  they  must  be  sold 
at  higher  prices. 

Fruit  should  be  cleaned  carefully  before  being 
used  as  food.  Even  when  the  skin  of  the  fruit  is 
to  be  removed,  it  should  be  washed  carefully.  One 
handles  both  the  skin  and  the  fruit  at  the  time  of 
peeling.  Berries  and  similar  fruits  should  be  washed 
thoroughly  before  being  eaten  or  cooked. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

FRUIT   FOR   BREAKFAST 

GRAPEFRUIT 

Wash  grapefruit  and  cut  crosswise  into  halves.  Loosen 
the  thick  white  skin  by  cutting  each  section  of  the  fruit 
from  the  skin.  Use  scissors  to  cut  the  skin  loose  from 
the  rind.  Cut  the  core  loose  from  the  rind  and  remove 
white  skin  with  core.  Fill  center  of  grapefruit  with 
powdered  sugar  if  desired.  Serve  on  fruit-plate. 

Have  you  ever  eaten  grapefruit  prepared  in  any  other  way  ? 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  39 

APPLE    SAUCE 

1  medium-sized  apple  ^   tsp.    cinnamon   or   nutmeg 

|  c.  water  (if  desired) 

£  to  1  tbsp.  sugar 

Wash  and  pare  the  apple.  Cut  it  into  quarters  and  re- 
move the  core.  Place  in  saucepan,  add  the  water,  cover 
tightly.  Boil  gently  until  apples  are  tender  when  pierced 
with  a  fork.  Add  sugar  and  nutmeg  or  cinnamon.  Cook 
until  sugar  is  melted. 

Other  recipes  for  using  apples  may  be  brought  from 
home  by  members  of  the  class.  Are  all  the  recipes  good 
ones  to  use  for  breakfast? 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  fruits  that  can  be  used  for  breakfast. 

2.  Which  of  these  grow  in  your  locality? 

3.  What  are  the  foodstuffs  found  in  fruits? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  purchasing  "in  season"? 

5.  What  fruits  are  "in  season"  at  the  present  time? 

6.  How  much  are  apples  per  pound?    How  many  pounds 
are  in  a  peck  and  in  a  bushel  of  apples? 

7.  How  does  the  price  per  bushel  compare  with  the  price 
paid  when  apples  are  bought  by  the  pound  ? 

8.  What  is  the  price  of  grapefruit  ?    What  does  one  serving 
cost? 

MILK 

Milk  is  one  of  our  most  important  foods.  When 
we  drink  milk  we  should  remember  that  we  are 
taking  a  .real  food  and  not  merely  something  to  take 
the  place  of  water.  When  enough  milk  is  used,  some 
other  food  can  be  left  out  of  the  diet.  Milk  is  a 
perfect  food  for  infants  or  young  animals  and  is  a 
good  food  for  grown  persons. 

When  the  chemist  divides  milk  into  its  parts  he 
finds  the  following  foodstuffs:  protein,  carbohy- 
drates, fat,  mineral  matter  and  water. 


40  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

The  protein  in  one  glassful  of  milk  is  equal  to  the 
protein  contained  in  one  large  egg  or  in  one  and 
one  third  ounces  of  beef.  Therefore  when  we  use 
enough  milk  in  a  meal  we  do  not  need  meat.  The 
milk  may  be  used  in  custards,  escalloped  and  creamed 
dishes,  or  it  may  be  used  to  drink. 

When  the  milk  stands,  the  fat  separates  and 
comes  to  the  top.  This  fat  is  then  called  cream. 
The  milk  remaining  when  the  cream  is  removed  is 
skim  milk.  The  milk  without  its  cream  removed  is 
whole  milk. 

The  mineral  matter  in  milk  is  very  valuable  because 
it  is  in  a  good  form  for  the  body  to  use.  Milk 
also  contains  the  vitamines  which  are  so  important. 

Every  boy  and  girl  should  use  a  great  deal  of  milk, 
—  some  say  a  pint  a  day  for  all  children  over  six 
years  old,  and  a  quart  a  day  for  the  child  under  six. 

Clean  milk  is  the  only  safe  milk.  Dirty  milk  may 
contain  disease  germs  that  cause  typhoid  fever, 
tuberculosis,  or  other  diseases.  Clean  milk  comes 
from  clean  cows  kept  in  clean  barns.  The  milk 
must  be  handled  by  persons  with  clean  hands  and 
clean  clothes,  and  it  must  be  placed  in  clean  pails, 
bottles,  or  pans. 

If  milk  is  purchased  from  a  store  or  dairy  wagon 
it  should  be  in  bottles,  tightly  covered.  The  bottles 
must  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  where  there  are  no  flies. 
If  a  bottle  of  milk  is  put  in  the  refrigerator  it  must 
always  be  tightly  covered. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  milk  that  can  be  pur- 
chased. Milk  that  is  heated  to  the  boiling-point, 
212°  F.,  and  cooled  before  it  is  sold,  is  called  steril- 
ized milk.  The  boiling  changes  the  flavor  but  kills 
harmful  bacteria  that  may  have  been  in  the  milk. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  .41 

Pasteurized  milk  is  milk  which  has  been  heated  and 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  140°  to  145°  F.  for  twenty 
to  thirty  minutes,  and  then  cooled  quickly.  This 
process  kills  bacteria  that  may  cause  disease.  Cer- 
tified milk  is  milk  that  is  guaranteed  by  the  producer 
to  be  especially  clean  and  pure. 

At  the  grocer's  we  buy  condensed  or  evaporated 
milk  in  tin  cans.  This  is  milk  that  has  had  most 
of  the  water  taken  out  of  it  and  afterwards  has  been 
canned.  This  is  useful  to  take  on  camping  trips 
or  journeys  where  fresh  milk  cannot  be  obtained. 
Powdered  milk  may  also  be  found  in  the  stores. 
This  is  a  dry  powder  and  must  have  water  added 
before  it  is  used. 

Fortunate  is  the  child  who  lives  on  a  farm  and  can 
have  all  the  milk  desired.  Milk,  however,  must  be 
regarded  as  a  very  necessary  food  and  should  be  used 
by  every  family,  whether  in  town  or  country.  It 
is  poor  economy  to  reduce  the  amount  of  milk  pur- 
chased. Some  other  food  could  be  better  spared. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

MILK 

WHITE   SAUCE 

White  sauce  is  made  by  combining  a  liquid,  a  fat  and 
a  thickening  agent.  Cream  sauces  and  gravies  are  ex- 
amples of  white  sauce.  White  sauce  is  of  different  thick- 
nesses, according  to  its  use.  The  following  are  the  general 
proportions  for  white  sauce  : 

No.  1    White  Sauce  or  Thin  White  Sauce 
1  c.  liquid  1  tbsp.  fat  1  tbsp.  flour 

Used  for  cream  soups  and  certain  sauces. 


42  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

No.  2  White  Sauce  or  Medium  White  Sauce 
1  c.  liquid  1  tbsp.  fat  2  tbsp.  flour 

Used  for  vegetables,  gravies  and  sauces. 

No.  8   White  Sauce  or  Thick  White  Sauce 
1  c.  liquid  2  tbsp.  fat  3  tbsp.  flour 

Used  for  thick  sauces,  creamed  oysters. 

No.  4   White  Sauce  or  Very  Thick  White  Sauce 

1  c.  liquid  3  tbsp.  fat  4  tbsp.  flour 

Used  for  croquettes. 

There  are  three  ways  of  combining  the  ingredients  in 
making  white  sauces : 

Method  No.  1.  Heat  part  of  the  milk  in  double-boiler ; 
mix  the  remaining  milk  with  the  flour,  and  add  gradually 
to  the  heated  milk,  stirring  thoroughly ;  add  the  fat  just 
before  removing  from  the  fire.  Cook  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes  in  the  double-boiler,  stirring  occasionally. 

Method  No.  2.  Heat  milk  in  double-boiler ;  mix  into 
a  paste  the  fat  and  the  flour ;  add  to  the  heated  milk, 
stirring  until  no  lumps  are  present ;  cook  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes. 

Method  No.  3.  This  method  is  often  used  in  making 
gravies.  Heat  the  fat  slowly;  add  the  flour,  and  stir 
until  a  smooth  paste  is  formed ;  add  the  milk,  stirring 
constantly  to  prevent  lumping.  Cook  six  to  ten  minutes. 

CREAM  TOAST 

1  tbsp.  butter  1  c.  milk  or  cream 

1  tbsp.  flour  i  tsp.  salt 

4  slices  bread 

Make  white  sauce  from  the  first  four  ingredients. 
While  it  is  cooking  make  the  toast,  being  careful  not  to 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  43 

burn  the  bread.  Dip  each  piece  in  the  white  sauce,  place 
in  a  warm  dish  and  pour  on  the  remaining  white  sauce. 
Serve  in  warmed  dishes. 

FRENCH  TOAST 

1  c.  milk  |  tsp.  salt 

1  egg  6  slices  stale  bread 

Beat  the  egg  slightly,  add  salt  and  milk,  dip  each  piece 
of  bread  in  the  mixture.  In  a  hot  frying-pan  place  some 
fat.  When  it  is  melted,  place  the  bread  in  the  frying- 
pan  and  brown  on  both  sides.  Serve  with  syrup. 

CARAMEL   SYRUP 

Melt  one  half  cup  of  sugar  in  a  frying-pan  and  heat 
until  it  is  a  brown  syrup;  add  one  half  cup  of  boiling 
water ;  boil  until  the  syrup  is  as  thick  as  desired.  Serve 
with  the  French  toast. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  clean  milk? 

2.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  use  clean  milk  ? 

3.  What  is  Pasteurized  milk?    sterilized  milk? 

4.  Can  either  of  these  be  purchased  in  your  neighborhood  ? 
Where? 

5.  What  is  the  price  of  milk  per  quart?    What  is  the  price 
of  one  pint  of  cream  ?    of  one  half  pint  ? 

6.  Can  skim  milk  be  purchased  from  your  dairy  man? 
Compare  the  price  of  this  with  the  price  of  whole  milk. 

7.  In  what  ways  may  skim  milk  be  used  ? 

8.  How  should  milk  be  cared  for  in  the  home  ? 

9.  What  is  condensed  milk? 

10.  Does  your  grocer  sell  condensed  milk?    What  does  it 
cost  per  can?    How  much  does  the  can  contain? 

11.  Is  milk  a  valuable  food?    Why? 

12.  For  what  food  may  milk  be  substituted? 


44       FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

CEREALS 

Cereals  are  derived  from  the  seeds  or  grain  of 
certain  cultivated  grasses.  The  most  commonly 
used  are  corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat 
and  rice.  From  these  are  made  many  different 
kinds  of  flour,  meal  and  breakfast  foods. 

Cereals  are  very  valuable  as  food  because  they  con- 
tain all  the  foodstuffs.  Carbohydrates  are  found  in 
the  largest  amount.  Carbohydrates  in  food  are 
found  mainly  in  three  forms :  (1)  starch,  (2)  sugar 
and  (3)  cellulose.  Starch  and  cellulose  are  the 
forms  found  in  cereals. 

The  grain  is  made  up  of  cells,  the  walls  of  which 
are  of  cellulose,  and  inside  is  the  starch.  Cellu- 
lose is  not  easily  digested  and  is  of  practically  no 
value,  but  it  is  useful  to  the  body  by  furnishing 
"bulk"  which  causes  the  food  to  pass  through  the 
digestive  system  in  a  better  and  easier  way. 

Cereals  contain,  also,  large  amounts  of  protein  and 
mineral  matter;  therefore  they  are  useful  both  for 
growth  and  for  producing  heat  and  energy. 

When  the  chemist  divides  a  cereal  into  its  parts 
he  finds  65  to  75  per  cent  of  carbohydrates,  10  to 
12  per  cent  of  protein,  2  to  8  per  cent  of  fat,  about 
2  per  cent  of  mineral  matter  and  10  to  12  per  cent 
of  water. 

Cereals  used  for  breakfast  foods  may  be  purchased 
at  the  stores  in  sealed  packages,  or  in  bulk  by  the 
pound.  Those  in  packages  are  usually  the  cleaner 
but  are  more  expensive. 

We  can  buy  ready  prepared  breakfast  foods,  such 
as  cornflakes,  puffed  cereals  and  shredded  wheat, 
or  we  may  purchase  the  kinds  that  must  be  cooked 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  45 

before  serving,  such  as  rolled  oats  and  cream  of 
wheat.  The  prepared  breakfast  foods  cost  more  per 
pound  than  those  which  must  be  cooked. 

Cereals  do  not  keep  well  and  it  is  not  wise  to  buy 
them  in  large  quantities,  even  though  the  price  may 
be  lower  when  bought  in  that  way. 

Cereals  are  cooked  for  three  reasons :  (1)  to  soften 
the  cellulose,  (2)  to  cause  the  starch  grains  to  swell 
and  burst  and  (3)  to  make  the  taste  better.  In 
cooking  cereals  a  fireless  cooker  may  be  used. 

When  cereals  are  cooked  on  the  stove,  always  use 
a  double-boiler.  This  is  to  prevent  burning. 

HOME  PROBLEMS  AND   QUESTIONS 

Make  a  list  of  the  cereals  grown  in  this  region. 
Which  are  the  most  common  ? 

Make  a  list  of  the  prepared  cereals  that  can  be 
purchased  at  the  grocery. 

Make  a  list  of  the  cereals  to  be  cooked. 

What  is  the  cost  of  rolled  oats  by  the  pound  when 
sold  in  bulk?  What  is  the  cost  per  box  for  rolled 
oats  ?  Read  the  label  on  the  box  to  find  what 
amount  of  oats  the  box  contains.  Compare  the 
price  of  that  in  the  box  and  that  in  bulk. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

BREAKFAST   CEREALS 
CREAM   OF   WHEAT  WITH   DATES 

2  tbsp.  cream  of  wheat  |  tsp.  salt 

lj  c.  water  4  to  6  dates 

Heat  water  to  boiling-point,  add  salt,  stir  in  cream  of 
wheat  gradually.  Cook  about  thirty  minutes  in  double- 


46  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

boiler.     When  the  cooking  is  about  half  done,  add  the 
dates,  which  have  been  cut  into  fine  pieces. 

PREPARED    CEREALS 

Place  cereal  on  pan  and  heat  in  oven  until  crisp.  Serve 
with  fruit  if  desired.  Milk  or  cream  may  be  used  with  a 
cereal.  Sometimes  hot  milk  is  poured  over  shredded 
wheat  before  serving. 

TOAST 

Cut  slices  of  bread  evenly  and  of  even  thickness.  Toast 
in  oven  or  on  toaster  until  the  slices  are  of  an  even  brown 
on  both  sides,  and  until  the  bread  is  thoroughly  dried  and 
crisp.  Toast  may  be  served  in  this  form  and  then  it  is 
called  "  dry  toast."  Butter  may  be  spread  on  it  and 
the  toast  placed  in  a  hot  oven  until  the  butter  is  melted, 
when  it  is  known  as  "  buttered  toast."  "  Cinnamon 
toast "  is  made  by  spreading  toast  with  butter  and 
sprinkling  with  sugar  and  cinnamon,  mixed,  using  three 
parts  of  sugar  to  one  of  cinnamon.  "  Dipped  toast  "  is 
made  by  quickly  dipping  toasted  bread  into  hot  salted 
water. 

Which  kinds  would  be  best  to  serve  for  breakfast? 

BREAD 

In  any  menu  we  usually  like  bread  in  some  form. 
Bread  is  another  way  of  serving  cereals,  because  all 
the  flours  and  meals  from  which  bread  is  made  are 
prepared  from  cereals.  The  cereal  used  most  com- 
monly in  making  bread  is  wheat.  The  product 
made  from  wheat  and  used  in  bread  is  called  flow. 
There  are  many  different  brands  of  wheat  flour  and 
these  will  make  different  kinds  of  bread.  The  flours 
are  not  alike  because  they  are  made  from  different 
kinds  of  wheat  and  by  different  processes.  A  great 
deal  of  our  flour  comes  from  the  Northwestern 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  47 

States  and  is  made  from  wheat  sown  in  the  spring 
and  called  hard-wheat  flour.  Wheat  grown  in  the 
Central  States  is  usually  sown  in  the  fall  and  the 
flour  made  from  it  is  called  soft-wheat  flour.  Both 
can  be  used  in  bread-making. 

Flour  that  is  to  be  used  for  bread-making  should 
be  creamy  in  color,  rather  gritty  in  feel,  and  if 
pressed  in  the  hand  should  fall  apart  when  released. 
Flour  may  be  purchased  by  the  barrel,  by  the  sack,  or 
by  the  pound.  It  is  cheaper  when  purchased  in 
quantity,  if  the  housekeeper  has  a  suitable  place 
for  storing  a  large  amount.  Flour  must  be  kept  in 
a  clean  dry  place  and  in  a  well  covered  container. 

Whole-wheat  flour  and  Graham  flour  are  types  of 
wheat  flour  used  for  bread-making;  these  contain 
bran  (the  outer  covering  of  the  wheat  grain)  and  other 
parts  of  the  grain  not  found  in  white  flour.  These 
are  valuable  in  the  diet  on  account  of  the  mineral 
matter  and  vit amines  they  contain. 

The  material  in  flour  that  is  important  in  bread- 
making  is  the  gluten,  which  is  a  form  of  protein 
that  when  mixed  with  water  forms  an  elastic  mass. 
It  is  the  gluten  that  makes  it  possible  to  stretch  and 
pull  the  dough  without  its  breaking  apart. 

Yeast  is  one  of  the. important  materials  used  when 
light  bread  is  made  from  wheat  flour.  It  is  the  yeast 
that  makes 'the  dough  rise  and  become  light.  Yeast, 
as  it  is  used  in  bread,  is  made  up  of  a  large  number 
of  tiny  plants,  each  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked 
eye.  Under  a  powerful  microscope  they  appear  as 
little  Cell-like  plants.  When  the  plants  are  put  into 
bread  dough  they  find  food  material  and  moisture 
in  the  flour  and  other  ingredients,  and  begin  to  grow 
and  produce  more  cells.  During  this  growing  pro- 


48  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

cess  a  gas  is  formed  which  is  called  carbon  dioxide. 
This  gas  stretches  the  gluten  in  the  bread  dough  and 
causes  the  whole  mass  to  rise.  Alcohol,  also,  is 
produced  during  the  growth  of  the  yeast  plant,  but 
both  the  gas  and  the  alcohol  pass  out  of  the  bread 
during  baking. 

The  yeast  plant,  in  order  to  grow  properly,  must 
have  (1)  food  and  (2)  moisture,  both  found  in  the 
dough,  and  (3)  warmth,  obtained  by  keeping  the 
dough  in  a  warm  place.  The  yeast  plant  is  like  all 


EQUIPMENT  FOB  BREAD-MAKING 

other  plants  in  that  it  will  be  killed  if  it  gets  too  hot. 
A  cold  temperature  does  not  kill  the  plants,  but  they 
will  not  grow  when  cold. 

Yeast  may  be  purchased  at  the  store  in  dry  yeast 
cakes  or  in  the  form  of  compressed  yeast.  In  the  dry 
yeast  the  plants  are  mixed  with  meal,  then  dried, 
and  wrapped  for  sale.  The  compressed  yeast  cake 
contains  growing  plants  with  enough  food  and 
moisture  to  permit  growth  for  a  few  days.  It 
cannot  be  kept  long,  however,  and  usually  is  pur- 
chased fresh  for  each  baking. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  49 

Liquid  yeast  is  a  third  form  in  which  yeast  is  kept, 
and  is  sometimes  called  "  beer  yeast "  or  "  starter/' 
It  contains  the  active  growing  plants  and,  in  a  cool 
place,  can  be  kept  for  several  days. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
YEAST   BREAD 

Bread  is  made  in  two  ways  :  (1)  by  the  "  long  process  ", 
in  which  a  sponge  is  used  and  this  sponge  is  allowed  to 
stand,  usually  overnight,  before  being  made  into  dough, 
and  (2)  by  the  "  short  process  ",  in  which  no  sponge  is 
used,  but  the  dough  is  made  at  first.  The  second  is  the 
more  modern  method,  and  is  popular  because  it  requires 
much  less  time  for  making  bread  than  the  "  long  process." 
"  Short-process  "  bread  is  most  easily  made  by  using 
compressed  yeast. 

RECIPE   FOR   ONE   LOAF   OF   BREAD 

1  c.  liquid  (milk  or  water,  or  the  two  mixed) 
1  tsp.  salt  1  tbsp.  fat 

1  tbsp.  sugar  3  c.  flour  (about) 

1  compressed  yeast  cake 

The  large  amount  of  yeast  is  used  in  order  that  the 
bread  may  be  made  and  baked  in  two  or  three  hours. 
At  home,  one  cake  of  yeast  would  do  for  three  or  four 
loaves  of  bread. 

Place  the  salt,  sugar  and  fat  in  a  mixing-bowl.  Scald 
the  liquid  and  pour  over  the  ingredients  in  the  mixing- 
bowl.  Let  stand  until  lukewarm.  While  this  is  cooling, 
place  the  yeast  in  2  tbsp.  of  lukewarm  water  to  soften. 
Add  this  to  the  lukewarm  mixture  in  the  bowl.  Stir 
thoroughly.  Sift  flour  into  the  liquid  mixture  gradually, 
stirring  thoroughly.  As  soon  as  it  is  possible  to  knead  the 
dough  without  having  it  stick  to  the  fingers,  place  it  on  a 
floured  bread-board  and  knead  until  it  is  smooth  in  ap- 
pearance and  elastic  to  touch.  Clean  out  the  mixing- 


50  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

bowl,  grease,  place  dough  in  bowl.  Cover  with  a  lid. 
Set  mixing-bowl  in  a  dishpan  half  full  of  lukewarm  water  ; 
put  in  a  warm,  but  not  hot,  place.  If  bread  is  made  in  hot 
weather  the  mixing-bowl  need  not  be  placed  in  the  water. 
Bread  dough  kept  at  80  to  86°  F.  rises  best.  Use  a  ther- 
mometer to  test  the  dough.  Experienced  bread-makers 
can  tell  by  the  "  feel  "  of  the  dough  whether  it  is  warm 
enough. 

When  the  dough  has  doubled  in  size,  knead  again,  add- 
ing no  flour  except  what  is  needed  on  the  board  to  keep 

the  dough  from  sticking. 
Shape  into  a  loaf  and 
place  in  a  well  greased 
bread-pan.  Grease  the 
pan  by  using  a  piece  of 
oil  paper  on  which  has 
been  placed  a  little  fat, 
or  use  a  brush  made  for 
the  purpose.  Cover  the 
pan  and  set  where  the 
proper  temperature  for 
rising  may  be  maintained. 
When  the  loaf  is  doubled 
in  size,  place  in  an  oven 
heated  to  400°  to  425°  F. 
Gradually  lower  the  tem- 
perature to  380°  F.  Use 

BREAD-MIXER  ,-, 

an     oven     thermometer. 

The  loaves  should  be  turned  around  in  the  oven  once  or 
twice  during  the  first  few  minutes  of  baking,  so  that  the 
shape  of  the  loaf  will  be  good.  No  brown  crust  should 
form  on  the  bread  until  after  the  first  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 
Bake  one  hour. 

Remove  bread  from  pan  and  place  it,  uncovered,  on  a 
bread-rack  to  cool ;  or  place  loaf  against  pan  in  such  a 
way  that  no  side  touches  a  flat  surface. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  51 

OTHER  WORK  WITH   BREAD 

While  bread  is  baking,  score  it,  using  the  score  card 
given  in  the  next  section. 

A  lesson  in  kneading  bread  might  be  given,  using  one 
large  portion  of  dough  which  may  be  prepared  before  the 
class  assembles. 

If  there  is  a  bread-mixer  in  the  equipment,  examine 
it.  Perhaps  there  will  be  dough  set  to  rise  in  it  before 
the  class  begins,  so  that  the  kneading  may  be  done  by  the 
class. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kinds  of  wheat  flour  are  used  for  bread-making? 

2.  State  the  necessary  qualities  of  white  flour  that  is  good 
to  use  for  bread-making. 

3.  How  is  bread  flour  purchased?    What  is  the  price  of 
one  pound  of  flour  in  bulk?  of  a  25-lb.  sack?  of  a  50-lb.  sack? 

4.  What  is  gluten?    How  is  it  valuable  in  bread-making? 

5.  What  is  yeast  ? 

6.  In  what  forms  do  we  have  yeast  for  bread-making? 

7.  How  does  yeast  make  dough  rise  ? 

8.  Would  yeast  grow  if  placed  in  water  alone ?    Why? 

9.  What  effect  does  a  hot  temperature  have  on  yeast?   a 
cold  temperature  ?  •  When  does  this  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with 
bread-making  ? 

10.  From  what  section  of  the  country  does  a  great  deal  of 
flour  come? 

BREAD  (Continued) 

Bread  should  be  thoroughly  baked,  because  during 
the  baking  process  the  yeast  plant  and  other  bacteria 
present  are  killed,  and  other  changes  also  take  place 
that  make  the  bread  more  easily  digested.  It  is 
better  to  bake  one  loaf  in  a  pan  instead  of  two  or 
three  or  four  loaves  together  in  a  larger  pan. 

Bread  that  is  well  baked  is  an  even  golden  brown 
all  over ;  and  when  the  bread  is  twenty-four  hours  old 
the  crumb  from  the  middle  of  the  loaf  will  crumble 


52  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

and  not  form  "dough-balls"  when  rubbed  between 
the  fingers.  Bread  that  has  just  been  baked  is  hard 
to  digest  because  it  forms  a  pasty  mass  in  the  mouth 
and  is  not  chewed  so  thoroughly  as  it  should  be. 
It  is  better  for  use  after  standing  twenty-four  hours. 
Bread  should  be  kept  in  a  metal  container  rather 
than  in  a  wooden  or  earthenware  jar.  The  con- 
tainer should  be  washed  and  scalded  often  with  boil- 
ing water,  and  may  be  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry 
thoroughly.  Scalding  water  and  sunshine  will  kill 
any  bacteria  that  may  be  in  the  box  which  would 


GOOD  LOAVES  OF  BREAD 

cause  the  bread  to  spoil.  Bread  should  not  be 
wrapped  in  a  cloth  while  warm  because  this  is  apt 
to  spoil  the  flavor. 

A  great  deal  of  baker's  bread  is  now  used,  and  in 
almost  any  locality  good  bread  of  this  kind  can  be 
obtained.  The  large  modern  bakeries  make  good 
clean  bread.  When  we  buy  bread  from  the  store  it 
is  well  to  know  whence  it  comes  and  to  find  out 
if  it  has  been  properly  made  and  cared  for.  A 
great  deal  of  bread  is  wrapped  in  paper  before  it 
leaves  the  bakery  and  this  is  usually  the  cleanest 
bread  that  can  be  bought,  as  all  dust,  flies,  dirty 
hands  and  dirty  clothes  have  been  kept  away  from  it. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  53 

A  slice  of  baker's  bread  usually  does  not  contain 
so  much  food  value  as  a  slice  of  home-made  bread 
of  the  same  size,  because  it  does  not  weigh  so  much 
and  therefore  contains  less  flour  and  probably  less 
milk  and  fat. 

A  girl  should  know  how  to  make  good  bread,  even 
though  the  bread  used  in  her  home  is  bought  from 
the  baker.  The  United  States  government  considers 
bread-making  such  an  important  thing  for  a  girl  to 
know  that  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
organized  bread  clubs  in  all  sections  of  the  country. 
The  girls  who  belong  to  these  clubs  learn  to  make 
bread  by  doing  it  many  times  and  then  entering  a 
loaf  to  be  judged  in  a  contest  with  other  girls.  To 
decide  just  how  well  she  has  learned  to  do  the  work, 
the  judge  uses  the  Standard  Score  Card  for  Bread 
that  has  been  adopted  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

SCORE  CARD1 

1.  General  appearance : 

Shape 5 

Smoothness  of  crust 5 

Depth  and  evenness  of  color 5 

2.  Lightness 10 

3.  Crust: 

Thickness 5 

Quality  (crispness  and  elasticity) 5 

Color 10 

4.  Crumb : 

Texture  (size  and  uniformity  of  cells,  thickness  of  cell 

walls) 15 

Elasticity  (softness  and  springiness) 15 

5.  Flavor  (taste  and  odor) 25 

Total 100 

1  From  Farmers'  Bulletin  807,  "  Bread  and  Bread-making  in 
the  Home",  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


54  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

One  of  the  favorite  ways  of  preparing  light  bread 
for  breakfast  is  to  make  it  into  toast.  Toast  is 
easier  to  digest  than  white  bread,  when  it  is  properly 
made,  because  there  are  certain  changes  that  take 
place  in  the  starch  during  the  toasting.  In  making 
dry  toast,  the  slice  should  be  dried  out  and  evenly 
browned  on  both  sides. 


BREAD-PANS,  BREAD-STICK  PANS  AND  BAKING-SHEET 

All  clean  scraps  of  bread  and  toast  should  be 
dried  and  made  into  crumbs;  these  can  be  used  in 
many  ways. 

Waffles,  batter  cakes,  muffins,  popovers  and 
biscuits  may  be  substituted  for  yeast  bread  in  the 
breakfast  plan. 

In  some  parts  of  the  United  States  hot  breads  are 
used  at  every  meal,  and  most  of  the  breads  used 
are  quick  breads.  Quick  breads  are  made  to  rise 
in  a  different  way  from  yeast  breads.  We  will 
study  in  another  lesson  the  methods  used. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
KOLLS   AND    BATTER   CAKES 

Experiment :  Mix  1  tbsp.  flour,  1  tbsp.  sugar,  f  cake  com- 
pressed yeast,  5  tbsp.  cold  water  to  a  smooth  paste. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  55 

Divide  into  three  parts,  place  each  in  a  tumbler  and 
label  1,  2  and  3. 

(a)  Fill  No.  1  with  boiling  water,  place  glass  in  bowl 
of  boiling  water,  let  stand  in  a  hot  place  fifteen  minutes. 

(6)  Half  fill  No.  2  with  lukewarm  ^water,  let  it  stand 
fifteen  minutes  in  a  temperature  of  80°  to  90°  F. 

(c)  Fill  No.  3  with  cold  water,  place  it  in  a  bowl  of 
cracked  ice,  or  outside  the  window  if  the  weather  is 
freezing,  for  fifteen  minutes. 

Observe  the  foam  on  top  of  each  glass  —  the  more 
foam  the  more  active  is  the  yeast. 

Which  has  produced  the  most  foam?  What  causes 
the  foam?  What  does  this  teach  about  the  tempera- 
ture for  bread-making  ? 

(d)  Place  i  yeast  cake  in  2  tbsp.  water.     Let  it  stand 
fifteen  minutes.     Has  any  foam  come  to  the  top  ?   Why  ? 

(e)  Let  No.  3  stand  in  a  temperature  of  80°  to  90°  F. 
for  one  hour.     Has  any  change  occurred  in  contents  of 
glass?     Why? 

(/)  Remove  No.  1  from  bowl  of  boiling  water,  let  it 
stand  in  a  lukewarm  place  for  one  hour.  Has  any 
change  occurred  in  contents  of  glass?  Why? 

PARKER  HOUSE   ROLLS 

1  c.  scalded  milk  |  tsp.  salt 

1  tbsp.  butter  \  yeast  cake  dissolved  in  J  c. 

1  tbsp.  sugar  lukewarm  water 

3  c.  flour  (about) 

Pour  scalded  milk  over  salt,  butter  and  sugar.  When 
mixture  is  lukewarm,  add  yeast  and  one  half  the  flour. 
Beat  until  smooth ;  cover,  and  let  rise.  Stir  in  flour  until 
dough  is  stiff  enough  to  handle.  Knead  until  smooth 
and  elastic.  Let  rise  again,  then  turn  out  on  bread-board, 
roll  and  pat  the  mixture  until  it  is  one  third  inch  in  thick- 
ness. Cut  with  biscuit-cutter.  With  the  handle  of  a 
knife  which  has  been  dipped  in  flour,  make  a  crease  through 
the  middle  of  each  piece.  Brush  over  each  piece  with 


56  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

butter ;  fold,  and  press  edges  together.  Place  in  greased 
pan,  one  inch  apart,  cover  and  let  rise.  Bake  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes  in  a  hot  oven. 

The  long  process  for  bread-making  is  used  in  making 
these  rolls.  In  what  other  ways  may  bread  dough  be 
used?  Perhaps  the  class  can  bring  some  good  recipes 
from  home. 

BATTER   CAKES 

f  c.  milk  |  tsp.  salt 

1  egg  2  tsp.  baking  powder 

1  tbsp.  melted  butter  1  c.  flour  (about) 

Add  the  well  beaten  egg  to  the  milk.  Mix  together  the 
dry  ingredients.  Sift  slowly  into  egg  and  milk  mixture, 
beating  thoroughly.  Drop  by  spoonfuls  on  a  hot  greased 
griddle.  Cook  on  one  side  until  top  is  puffed  and  full  of 
bubbles  and  edges  are  crisp.  Turn  with  a  spatula  or 
pancake-turner,  and  cook  on  the  other  side.  Serve  im- 
mediately on  warmed  plates. 

Batter  cakes  are  also  known  as  griddlecakes. 

Of  what  material  are  griddles  made?  What  do  they 
cost  ?  How  should  they  be  cared  for  ? 

Perhaps  some  of  the  class  will  make  waffles  instead  of 
the  batter  cakes.  Some  one  will  have  a  good  recipe,  or 
one  may  be  found  in  the  cook  book. 

EGGS 

Hen,  duck,  goose,  turkey  and  guinea-fowl  eggs 
are  used  for  food  in  this  country.  The  hen's  egg  is 
the  one  most  commonly  found  in  the  market.  Per- 
haps the  members  of  this  class  who  live  in  the 
country  have  used  some  other  kinds  of  eggs. 

The  egg  has  in  it  food  for  the  baby  chick  and 
for  that  reason  contains  all  the  foodstuffs  required 
for  its  growth.  When  the  chemist  divides  the  egg 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  57 

into  its  parts  he  finds  about  12  per  cent  of  protein, 
about  9  per  cent  of  fat  and,  in  addition,  water  and 
mineral  matter.  Eggs  may  replace  meat  in  the  diet 
because  they  contain  a  large  amount  of  protein, 
which  is  easily  digested  and  used  in  the  body. 

When  buying  eggs  in  the  market  it  is  often  difficult 
to  get  them  fresh.  A  fresh  egg  need  not  be  newly 
laid,  but  must  be  in  good  condition  for  human  food, 
although  it  may  be  several  days  old.  Eggs  that 
have  been  treated  or  stored  are  not  fresh  eggs. 

Eggs  cannot  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  a  long 
period  unless  some  method  of  preserving  them  is 
used.  The  shell  of  the  egg  is  porous  and  allows 
bacteria  from  the  air  to  pass  through,  thereby  causing 
the  egg  to  spoil.  The  home  methods  found  to  be 
best  for  preserving  eggs  are  by  the  use  of  water  glass 
or  lime  water.  These  materials  may  be  purchased 
from  the  druggist  and  should  be  combined  with  clean 
boiled  water.  After  the  eggs  are  placed  in  the 
liquid,  the  container  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place. 
Eggs  that  are  laid  in  April,  May,  or  June  are  the 
best  for  preservation,  and  are  also  lower  in  price 
than  at  any  other  season.  Large  numbers  of  eggs 
are  put  in  cold  storage  every  year  and  these  are  the 
eggs  that  are  sold  during  the  winter  as  "storage"  or 
"packed"  eggs. 

Eggs  are  usually  sold  by  the  dozen,  but  as  they 
vary  greatly  in  size  and  weight,  it  would  be  better 
if  they  were  sold  by  weight. 

Eggs  that  are  "soft-cooked ",  at  a  temperature 
below  that  of  boiling  water,  are  most  easily  and 
quickly  digested.  " Hard-cooked "  or  hard-boiled 
eggs  are  thoroughly  digested  when  not  eaten  hur- 
riedly. 


58  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Eggs  are  very  good  for  children,  and  are  among  the 
first  foods  added  to  the  milk  diet  of  the  small  child. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

EGGS    FOR   BREAKFAST 

SOFT-COOKED   EGGS 

Never  cook  an  egg  at  boiling  temperature,  as  this  makes 
the  white  tough.  Place  one  egg  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water 
in  the  top  part  of  the  double-boiler.  Place  boiling  water 
in  lower  part  of  double-boiler.  Remove  from  fire  and  set 
in  warm  place.  Cook  for  the  length  of  time  desired  — 
five  minutes  for  a  soft-cooked  egg,  seven  to  ten  for  a 
medium-cooked  egg.  If  the  eggs  have  come  out  of  the 
refrigerator  and  are  very  cold  it  will  require  a  longer  time 
to  cook  them. 

How  shall  soft-cooked  eggs  be  served  for  breakfast? 

HARD-COOKED   EGGS 

Place  one  egg  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  remove  from  fire, 
cover  tightly ;  set  in  a  warm  place  forty-five  minutes  to 
one  hour.  Using  a  double-boiler  for  this  is  a  good  method. 

Place  one  egg  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water.  Boil  for 
twenty  minutes. 

When  the  two  eggs  are  done,  examine  the  whites. 
Which  is  the  more  tender? 

What  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  to  use  hard-cooked 
eggs? 

POACHED  EGGS 

Have  a  frying-pan  two  thirds  full  of  water  at  simmering 
point,  to  which  salt  has  been  added.  In  this  may  be 
placed  muffin  rings  if  they  are  available.  Break  each  egg 
separately,  pour  carefully  into  muffin  ring  or  water.  Do 
not  allow  the  water  to  boil.  When  the  egg-white  is  firm, 
remove  eggs  from  water,  using  a  pancake-turner.  Place 
each  egg  on  a  piece  of  buttered  toast  arranged  on  a  warmed 
platter. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


59 


SCRAMBLED   EGGS 


3  eggs 
c.  milk 


1  tsp.  pepper 


1  tbsp.  butter 


TS" 

|  tsp.  salt 


Beat  eggs  slightly,  add  milk  and  seasoning.  Melt 
butter  in  top  of  double-boiler,  turn  in  mixture  and  cook 
very  slowly,  stirring  often  until  white  is  set.  Serve  on 
warmed  platter.  Bits  of  chopped  ham  or  other  meat  may 
be  added  if  desired. 


PUFFY   OMELET 


4  eggs 

2  tbsp.  milk 


1  tsp.  salt 
Pepper 


Separate  the  yolks  and  whites  of  the  eggs.  Beat  the 
yolks  of  the  eggs  until  "  creamy  "  and  add  the  milk,  salt 
and  pepper.  Beat  the  whites  until  they  are  stiff.  Pour 
the  yolks  over  the 
whites  and  fold  to- 
gether carefully.  Place 
in  a  frying-pan  one 
tablespoon  of  butter. 
When  it  is  melted  pour 
in  the  omelet.  Cook 
on  top  of  the  stove 
until  the  omelet  is 
slightly  browned  on 
the  bottom.  Set  in 
oven  and  bake  slowly 
until  omelet  is  "  set  " 
and  browned  on 
the  top.  Have  ready 
a  warmed  platter. 
Loosen  the  omelet 
from  the  pan  with  a  spatula.  Slide  it  half-way  from  the 
pan  to  the  platter  and  then  fold  the  half  of  the  omelet  in 
the  frying-pan  over  the  half  on  the  platter.  Serve. 

Grated  cheese,  minced  ham,  or  chopped  parsley  may 


FOLDING  THE  OMELET  AS  IT  COMES  FROM 
THE  PAN 


60  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

be  sprinkled  over  the  omelet  before  it  is  folded,  in  order 
to  vary  the  flavor. 

An  omelet-pan  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  regular 
frying-pan  in  making  the  omelet. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kinds  of  eggs  are  used  for  food  in  this  country? 

2.  What  foodstuffs  does  an  egg  contain  ? 

3.  What  food  may  eggs  replace  in  a  meal ?    Why? 

4.  What  other  food  have  we  studied  which  is  similar  in  food 
value  to  eggs  ? 

5.  What  is  a  fresh  egg?   a  packed  egg? 

6.  Have  you  ever  seen  eggs  being  packed  at  home  for  winter 
use  ?    How  was  it  done  ? 

7.  What  is  the  price  per  dozen  for  packed  eggs?   for  fresh 


8.  Weigh  three  small  eggs,  then  weigh  three  large  eggs. 
What  is  the  difference  in  weight  per  dozen?  What  does  this 
prove  about  purchasing  eggs  by  count  or  by  weight  ? 

THE   DINING  ROOM 

The  dining  room  should  be  a  light,  cheerful  room, 
situated  so  that  the  sunlight  reaches  it  at  some  time 
every  day,  preferably  in  the  morning.  This  room 
should  be  large  enough  to  permit  easy  passing  behind 
the  chairs  when  persons  are  seated  around  the  table. 

The  walls  should  be  finished  in  light  colors  rather 
than  dark,  which  tend  to  make  the  room  appear 
gloomy.  The  window  curtains  should  be  of  a  kind 
easily  laundered,  since  draperies  in  a  dining  room  are 
apt  to  hold  dirt  and  odors  and  need  frequent  cleaning. 

The  floor  is  best  made  of  hard  wood,  as  a  rug  may 
then  be  used  instead  of  a  carpet.  A  dining-room 
floor  would  be  more  sanitary  if  no  covering  were  used, 
but  the  noise  made  by  using  a  bare  floor  is  annoying 
to  many  persons. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  61 

The  furniture  should  be  plain  in  design.  Wood  or 
cane-seated  chairs  are  perhaps  better  to  use  than 
upholstered,  because  they  are  easier  to  keep  clean. 
A  dining-table  with  a  top  having  a  waxed  finish  is 
much  better  than  one  highly  varnished.  The  top  of 
the  sideboard  and  serving-table  should  not  be  crowded 
with  dishes  of  various  kinds.  A  dining  room  is  more 
pleasing  with  few  pictures,  or  none  at  all,  and  with 
little  bric-a-brac  or  few  dishes  used  as  decoration. 

When  buying  a,  "set"  of  dishes  it  is  best  to  select  a 
style  with  simple  decoration  or  without  decoration. 
Large  conspicuous  designs  and  bright  colors  become 
tiresome  when  the  dishes  are  used  often.  A  good 
quality  of  china  with  no  decoration  is  a  wise  choice 
for  a  "set  ",  because  any  type  of  decorated  dish  looks 
well  with  it. 

Silver  knives  and  forks  should  be  of  the  same 
pattern,  but  the  spoons  may  be  of  different  design. 
Silver  never  looks  well  unless  it  is  kept  polished. 

White  linen  tablecloths  and  napkins  are  better  to 
buy  than  cotton,  because  linen  wears  longer  and 
launders  much  better  than  cotton.  Luncheon  sets 
of  various  types  may  be  used  instead  of  a  tablecloth, 
and  are  much  easier  to  launder. 


HOME   PROBLEMS  AND   QUESTIONS 

Collect  pictures  of  dining-room  furniture ;  of  the 
interior  of  dining  rooms.  Bring  them  to  class  for 
discussion.  Perhaps,  if  there  is  a  furniture  dealer 
in  the  community,  you  or  the  teacher  can  get  furni- 
ture catalogues  that  will  be  good  to  study. 

Which  types  of  chairs  are  best  for  the  dining  room  ? 
Why  ?  Do  the  chairs  in  the  pictures  seem  too  heavy 


62  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

to    move    about    easily?    Are    they   well   braced? 
Observe  whether  they  would  be  hard  to  dust. 

What  types  of  tables  are  best  for  the  dining  room  ? 
Why? 
-  Which  type  of  sideboard  is  best  ? 

For  what  purpose  is  a  side-table  used?  What  is 
a  buffet? 

See  if  you  can  find  samples  of  the  kind  of  cur- 
tain material  you  think  would  be  good  for  a  dining 
room. 

If  your  teacher  has  a  sample-book  of  wall  paper, 
find  a  sample  of  the  colors  you  would  like  to  have 
on  the  walls  of  your  dining  room. 

What  kind  of  floor-covering  would  you  like? 

You  may  like  to  mount  on  sheets  of  paper  pictures 
of  the  furniture  you  would  select  to  use  in  your 
dining  room ;  if  you  have  a  sample  of  curtain 
material,  rug  and  wall  paper  that  you  like,  you  can 
mount  these.  Then  make  a  floor-plan  of  your  room, 
showing  the  size  of  the  room,  the  windows,  the 
doors,  and  where  the  china  closet  is  placed.  Arrange 
the  furniture  in  the  room.  On  another  sheet  make 
a  list  of  the  prices  of  all  the  furnishings  in  the  dining 
room.  What  is  the  total  cost  of  furnishing?  Tie 
these  sheets  together  and  make  a  cover  for  them. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

MEAT  DISHES   FOR   BREAKFAST 

BROILED   BACON 

Place  in  a  hot  frying-pan  thin  slices  of  bacon  from 
which  the  rind  has  been  removed.  Turn  several  times 
during  the  cooking.  When  the  bacon  is  crisp,  not  burned, 
drain  from  the  fat  carefully  and  serve  on  a  warmed 
platter. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  63 

Bacon  may  be  purchased  by  the  piece,  sliced  in  bulk,  or 
sliced  and  packed  in  sealed  containers.  In  which  form  is 
bacon  the  cheapest  by  the  pound?  Why? 

CREAMED   DRIED   BEEF 

Place  two  tablespoons  of  fat  in  a  small  frying-pan ;  when 
it  is  melted,  add  about  three  slices  of  dried  beef  torn  in 
pieces.  Stir  about  three  minutes,  add  one  cup  of  milk. 
Mix  thoroughly  one  tablespoon  of  flour  with  two  table- 
spoons of  milk;  add  slowly  to  the  scalding  hot  milk. 
Stir  to  prevent  lumping.  Cook  slowly  five  to  ten  minutes. 
Serve  on  toast  arranged  on  a  warmed  platter. 

In  making  this  white  sauce,  why  is  the  flour  mixed  with 
milk  instead  of  with  fat  ? 

How  is  dried  beef  made?  Perhaps  the  butcher  will 
tell  you.  What  does  it  cost  per  pound  ? 

What  are  some  other  meat  dishes  that  would  be  good 
for  breakfast?  If  you  have  time,  try  one  of  these. 

TABLE  MANNERS 

No  matter  how  educated  or  pleasing  in  character 
one  may  be,  the  impression  made  upon  others  is  not 
good  if  one's  manners  are  poor. 

Certain  rules  for  table  behavior  or  manners  have 
been  adopted  because  they  make  the  eating  of  the 
meal  easier  and  more  graceful,  and  the  serving  of  it 
more  convenient. 

The  following  are  a  few  rules  that  should  be 
observed  always  when  at  the  dining-table : 

1.  Never  go  to  the  table  unless  hands  and  face 
are  clean  and  the  hair  is  in  order. 

2.  Stand  behind  your  chair  until  the  hostess  takes 
her  seat. 

3.  The  napkin  should  be  laid  across  the  lap  with- 
out being  entirely  opened  out.     Never  stick   the 


64  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

corner  inside  the  collar.     If  the  napkin  is  to  be 
used  again,  fold  it  neatly  before  leaving  the  table. 

4.  The  knife  should  be  held  in  the  right  hand  and 
the  fork  in  the  left  when  they  are  used  at  the  same 
time.     Hold  the  knife  and  fork  so  that  the  end  of  the 
handle  touches  the  palm  of  the  hand.     The  point  of 
the  index-finger  is  on  the  top  of  the  handle  of  the  fork 
at  the  lower  end,  but  not  on  the  tines.     The  knife 
must  be  laid  on  the  plate  when  not  in  use.     Both 
knife  and  fork  should  be  placed  side  by  side  on  the 

plate  when  one  has 
finished  using  them 
at  the  end  of  a 
course.  The  fork, 
when  being  used  to 
carry  food  to  the 
mouth,  may  be  held 
in  either  hand,  and 
may  be  held  in  much 
the  same  position 
as  when  used  with 
the  knife,  or  like  a 

PROPER  WAY  TO  HOLD  KNIFE  AND  FORK 

spoon. 

5.  The  spoon  should  be  held  in  the  right  hand,  and 
such  food  as  soup,  tea,  or  coffee  should  be  taken 
from  the  side  of  the  spoon.     A  spoon  used  for  stirring 
tea  or  coffee  should  be  laid  on  the  saucer  after  use 
and  before  drinking  from  the  cup. 

6.  Always  sit  erect  in  the  chair  while  eating. 
Keep  the  arms  and  elbows  off  the  table. 

7.  Never  eat  hurriedly. 

8.  Do  not  talk  when  the  mouth  is  full  of  food. 

9.  Ask  politely  for  dishes  to  be  passed,  rather  than 
reach  across  the  table. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  65 

10.  Never  complain  about  the  food.     If  it  is  not 
the  kind  desired,  it  need  not  be  eaten. 

11.  If  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the  table  before  the 
others  are  ready,  ask  to  be  excused  by  the  hostess. 

12.  Do  not  talk  about  disagreeable  things  during 
the  meal. 

HOME  PROBLEMS  AND   QUESTIONS 

The  following  breakfast  will  be  served  during  the 
next  laboratory  period : 

Orange  Toast 

Oatmeal  Cocoa 

Make  a  list  of  the  dishes  and  silver  that  will  be 
needed  in  setting  the  table  and  serving  the  meal. 

Decide  how  much  of  each  food  will  be  required 
for  serving  the  number  who  are  to  eat  the  meal. 

Decide  the  order  of  work  for  preparation  of  the 
meal,  —  that  is,  which  food  must  be  put  on  to  cook 
first,  which  second,  etc. 

What  will  the  food  cost  for  each  person? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
SERVE  A  BREAKFAST 

Setting  the  table :  Place  the  table-pad  or  silence-cloth  on 
the  table.  Over  this  lay  the  cloth,  arranged  straight 
and  smooth.  If  a  center  doily  is  used,  place  this  in 
the  middle  of  the  table.  Doilies  and  table-runners  may 
be  used,  instead  of  a  tablecloth,  for  breakfast,  luncheon 
and  supper.  Asbestos  pads  should  be  placed  under  all 
hot  dishes  when  doilies  or  runners  are  used  on  a  polished 
table. 

A  cover  means  the  space  with  the  silver,  glass  and 
china  allowed  for  each  person.     Enough  space  must  be 


66 


FOODS   AND   COOKERY 


allowed  so  that  no  one  is  crowded.  Twenty-two  inches 
is  the  least  space  that  should  be  used. 

At  the  center  of  each  cover  place  a  plate,  the  kind  de- 
pending on  the  meal  that  is  served.  For  breakfast  it 
will  probably  be  the  fruit-plate.  At  the  right  of  the 
plate  place  the  knife,  with  its  sharp  edge  toward  the 
plate  and  the  end  of  the  handle  about  one  inch  from 
the  edge  of  the  table.  Next  to  the  knife  place  the 
spoons,  with  the  bowls  up. 

At  the  left  of  the  plate,  place  the  fork  or  forks  with 
the  tines  up  and  the  end  of  the  handle  about  one  inch 


\  ^  5 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  "COVER"  FOR  DINNER 

1,  Napkin;  2,  Salad  Fork;  3,  Dinner  Fork;  4,  Dinner  Plate; 
5,  Dinner  Knife ;  6,  Soup  Spoon ;  7,  Dessert  or  Sauce  Spoon ; 
8,  Coffee  Spoon ;  9,  Butter  Plate ;  10,  Water  Glass. 

from  the  edge  of  the  table.  To  the  left  of  the  fork  lay 
the  neatly  folded  napkin. 

At  the  end  of  the  knife,  place  the  glass,  right  side  up. 
At  the  end  of  the  forks,  place  the  bread-and-butter  plate. 

When  flowers  are  used  they  should  be  low,  or  not  high 
enough  to  obstruct  the  view  across  the  table. 

The  dishes  from  which  foods  are  to  be  served  should 
be  placed  conveniently  for  those  doing  the  serving. 
Place  the  serving-spoons  and  the  carving-knife  and  fork 
where  they  will  be  needed,  but  do  not  place  them  in  the 
dishes  before  beginning  the  serving. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  67 

Cups  and  saucers,  sugar-bowl  and  cream-pitcher, 
should  be  placed  in  front  of  the  hostess,  with  the  coffee- 
pot or  teapot  at  her  right. 

The  table  should  never  look  crowded  with  dishes. 
When  the  hostess  is  serving  the  meal,  a  tea-cart  at 
her  side  may  be  used  for  holding  dessert-dish,  bread- 
plate,  water-pitcher,  etc. 

Place  the  chairs  so  that  the  edge  of  the  seat  just 
touches  the  tablecloth,  but  does  not  keep  it  from  hang- 
ing straight. 

STYLE  OF  SERVING 

There  are  three  methods  of  serving  meals : 

1.  English,    used    in    ordinary    family    service. 
Foods  are  served  at  the  table  by  the  host  and  hostess 
and   other   members   of   the   family.    The   served 
dishes  may  be  passed  by  the  household  helper,  or 
passed  from  one  person  to  another  at  the  table.     The 
hostess  usually  serves  the  soup,  salad  and  dessert; 
the  host  serves  the  meat  and  vegetables.     This  is 
the  style  of  serving  used  in  most  American  homes. 

2.  Russian,  used  for  very  formal  meals.     Each 
plate  is  served  in  the  kitchen  and  placed  in  front  of 
the  guest  by  the  household  helpers;   or  the  empty 
plates  are  placed  before  each  guest  and  the  serving- 
dishes  are  passed  to  each  person  by  the  household 
helper.     No  serving-dishes  are  placed  on  the  table. 
This  form  of  service  is  not  practical  for  the  ordinary 
family,   because   it   requires  more   work   than  the 
English  service. 

3.  Combination,  used  for  informal  meals.    This  is 
a  combination  of  the  two  other  styles.     For  example, 
the  soup  or  salad  is  served  in  the  kitchen,  and  the 
meat  and  vegetables  are  served  at  the  table. 


68  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Every  hostess  may  follow  her  own  ideas  about  serv- 
ing, as  far  as  details  are  concerned,  but  a  few  general 
rules  should  be  followed. 

1.  Serving-dishes  from  which  the  guest  is  to  serve 
himself  must  be  passed  to  the  left  of  the  guest. 
Why? 

2.  Plates  that  have  been  served  are  placed  in  front 
of  the  guest  from  the  right  side.     Why? 


SERVING-DISH  PASSED  TO  THE  LEFT 

3.  Used  plates  are  removed  from  the  right  side 
when  it  is  possible  to  do  it  conveniently. 

4.  When  removing  dishes  between  the  courses, 
use  the  following  order :    remove  the  used  dishes, 
then   the  dishes   containing  food,   next  the   clean 
dishes  and  silver  that  will  not  be  needed  further, 
then  the  crumbs  from  the  cloth  (if  necessary).     A 
table  never  looks  attractive  when  dirty  dishes  from 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  69 

one  course  remain  during  the  next  course,  and  even 
at  the  most  informal  meals  it  is  better  to  remove 
dishes  between  courses.  This  work  may  be  done 
by  the  daughter.  When  the  family  is  very  small, 
sometimes  the  dirty  dishes  are  placed  on  a  side-table 
or  tea-cart,  from  which  the  dessert  is  taken,  thereby 
saving  the  housekeeper  steps  in  serving. 

5.  In  removing  dishes  from  the  table,  when 
serving  an  informal  meal,  they  may  be  placed  on 
a  hand-tray  for  carrying  to  the  kitchen.  Never 
" stack"  dishes  at  the  table  or  for  removing  from 
the  table. 

Set  the  table  for  breakfast.     Practice  serving. 

If  no  dining-room  furniture  is  available,  the  supply- 
table  may  be  used.  Perhaps  dishes  to  use  in  setting  the 
table  may  be  borrowed  until  the  school  can  get  such  equip- 
ment. If  no  other  way  is  possible,  let  every  member  of 
the  class  arrange  a  cover  at  the  laboratory  desk,  using 
laboratory  dishes.  This  is  never  a  desirable  plan,  how- 
ever, because  the  equipment  does  not  supply  the  best 
type  of  dishes  nor  the  proper  kind. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
SERVE   A  BREAKFAST 

Suggested  Menu :   Orange  Toast 

Oatmeal  Cocoa 

Discuss  order  of  work. 

Discuss  equipment  needed. 

Discuss  china  and  silver  needed. 

Would  this  type  of  breakfast  suit  every  family?    Why? 

Review  recipes. 

Cook  and  serve  meal. 

Several  lessons  might  be  given  on  serving  breakfasts. 


70       FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

THE  PLAN  FOR  SUPPER  OR  LUNCHEON 

In  some  families  the  meal  served  at  noon  is  called 
luncheon  and  is  followed  by  dinner  in  the  evening ; 
in  others,  dinner  is  the  meal  served  at  noon,  fol- 
lowed by  supper  in  the  evening.  Luncheon  and 
supper  are  simpler  meals  than  dinner. 

The  plan  varies  greatly  under  different  conditions, 
but  the  usual  types  of  food  served  are  meat  or  meat- 
substitute  dishes,  salads,  vegetables,  bread  in  some 
form  and  perhaps  a  simple  dessert  or  cake.  "  Quick 
breads"  are  often  used  for  luncheon  or  supper. 

Many  consider  a  cream  soup,  a  vegetable  salad, 
bread,  stewed  fruit  and  cookies  a  good  combination 
for  such  a  meal,  while  other  families  prefer  a  meat 
dish,  a  hot  vegetable,  and  bread ;  still  others  may 
consider  bread  and  milk  a  satisfactory  menu.  No 
family  needs,  in  one  meal,  foods  of  all  the  types  sug- 
gested. 

Luncheon  or  supper  is  a  meal  for  which  it  is  con- 
venient to  use  the  "  left-overs  "  in  various  ways.  Bits 
of  meat  may  be  combined  with  other  foods  to  make 
attractive  dishes.  Small  portions  of  vegetables  may 
be  made  into  salads  or  soups,  or  combined  with  meat. 
Sometimes  a  salad  is  made  of  left-over  fruit,  and  used 
at  the  end  of  the  meal  in  place  of  a  dessert. 

Some  housekeepers  are  very  wasteful  in  throwing 
into  the  garbage-can  small  bits  of  clean  food  that 
may  be  left  from  a  meal.  Often  persons  object  to 
" left-overs",  but  this  is  usually  the  case  when  the 
housekeeper  has  not  learned  how  to  make  them  into 
dishes  which  are  well  flavored  and  pleasing  hi  ap- 
pearance. 

When  bits  of  meat  are  left  from  a  meal  they  should 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  71 

be  put  in  a  covered  container  and  placed  in  the  ice- 
box or  some  other  cool  place.  Vegetables  with  a 
strong  flavor  should  be  covered  if  put  in  the  ice- 
box. All  "left-over"  food  should  be  used  promptly 
and  not  left  to  spoil. 

The  cost  of  food  should  be  considered,  and  if  any- 
thing can  be  saved  by  careful  watching  and  planning 
it  is  a  part  of  the  housekeeper's  business  to  do  this. 

There  are  several  ways  of  reducing  the  amount  of 
money  to  be  spent  for  food  :  (1)  buy  the  foods  that 
are  in  season ;  (2)  buy  those  which  contain  the  great- 
est food  value,  these  are  not  always  the  highest 
priced ;  (3)  buy  in  quantity  any  foods  that  can  be 
properly  stored ;  (4)  prepare  and  cook  carefully,  so 
that  nothing  shall  be  wasted;  (5)  save  every  part 
of  the  food  that  is  fit  for  use. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

CREAM   SOUPS 
CREAM  OF  TOMATO   SOUP 

Make  one  cup  of  No.  1  White  Sauce.  Strain  cooked 
tomatoes  through  a  wire  sieve,  using  one  half  cup  of  juice. 
Place  tomato- juice  in  saucepan,  heat,  add  one  sixteenth 
teaspoon  soda.  Add  the  heated  tomato-juice  to  the  white 
sauce.  Re-heat  and  serve  in  warmed  soup-plates. 

Try  mixing  one  tablespoon  tomato-juice  and  one  table- 
spoon of  milk,  and  see  what  happens.  The  soda  prevents 
this  action,  which  is  the  curdling  of  the  milk. 

CREAM   OF  CORN  SOUP 

£  c.  stewed  or  canned  corn  1  tsp.  flour 

1  c.  milk  1  tbsp.  butter 

Make  a  white  sauce  of  the  milk,  butter  and  flour.  Less 
flour  is  needed  for  thickening,  because  the  corn  will  help 
thicken  the  soup. 


72 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


Heat  the  corn  and  press  through  the  vegetable-ricer. 
Add  corn  to  the  white  sauce.  Re-heat.  If  desired,  a 
spoonful  of  whipped  cream  may  be  placed  hi  each  soup- 
plate  and  the  soup  poured  over  it. 

TO   SERVE  WITH   SOUPS 

Soup-sticks.  Butter  slices  of  bread.  Cut  into  strips. 
Brown  them  slowly  in  the  oven. 

Croutons.  Cut  but- 
tered slices  of  bread  into 
cubes.  Brown  in  oven. 

Wafers.  Heat  salted 
wafers  in  oven  until 
crisp. 

Parsley.  Chopped 
parsley  is  sometimes 
sprinkled  over  the  top 
of  cream  soups  as  a 
garnish. 

Celery.  Crisp  celery 
is  always  good  to  serve 
with  soups. 

If  possible,  bring  from 
home  other  recipes  for 
cream  soups. 


CORRECT  METHOD  OF  HOLDING  SOUP  OR 
BOUILLON  SPOON 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  foods  usually  served  for  luncheon  or  supper? 
Should  all  of  these  be  served  in  the  same  meal  ? 

2.  What  are  "left-overs"?    How  may  they  be  used? 

3.  How  should  "left-overs"  be  cared  for? 

4.  Why  do  some  persons  object  to  "left-overs"? 

5.  How  may  the  housekeeper  reduce  the  amount  of  money 
spent  for  food  ? 

6.  Name  some  foods  that  are  "out  of  season"  at  the  present 
time.    Why  are  they  expensive  ? 

7.  State  ways  in  which  food  is  wasted  in  cooking. 

8.  When  should  soda  be  added  to  tomato  soup?    Why? 

9.  Are  cream  soups  of  much  food  value ?    Why? 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  73 

10.  Name  some  foods  that  should  not  be  served  when  cream 
soups  are  used  in  the  meal  plan.     Explain. 

11.  Make  several  supper  or  luncheon  plans. 

MEAT   SUBSTITUTES 

Such  foods  as  cheese,  milk,  poultry,  nuts,  dried 
peas,  beans,  lentils,  cowpeas  and  soy  beans  are  some- 
times used  in  the  diet  in  the  place  of  meat,  and  are 
commonly  called  meat  substitutes. 

In  the  United  States,  people  eat  more  meat  per 
person  than  in  any  other  country,  and  more  than  is 
necessary.  This  is  because  the  flavor  of  meat  is  very 
much  liked,  because  meat  is  easily  cooked,  and  be- 
cause it  is  popularly  believed  to  be  necessary  for  the 
best  muscular  work.  It  has  been  found,  however, 
that  meat  may  be  replaced,  for  a  part  of  the  time  at 
least,  by  other  foods  that  contain  a  large  amount  of 
protein,  without  injury  to  the  body  and  without  loss 
in  muscular  strength.  If  meat  is  high  in  price  it 
is  well  to  remember  this  fact  when  planning  meals. 

Cheese  is  a  product  made  from  milk.  When 
divided  into  its  parts  by  the  chemist,  cheese  is  found 
to  contain  about  one  third  water,  one  third  fat  and 
one  third  protein.  Cheese  is  usually  divided  into  two 
classes  :  (1)  hard  cheese,  such  as  American  Cheddar 
cheese,  Edam  and  Roquefort,  and  (2)  soft  cheese, 
such  as  Neufchatel,  Camembert  and  cottage  cheese. 

The  cheese  most  commonly  found  in  the  market  is 
American  Cheddar  cheese,  sometimes  called  "  Ameri- 
can cheese"  or  "New  York  cream  cheese."  The 
States  making  the  most  cheese  are  New  York  and 
Wisconsin.  Much  of  our  cheese  comes  from  foreign 
countries,  as  for  example,  Edam  cheese  from  Hol- 
land, and  Neufchatel  from  France. 


74  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Cottage  cheese  is  often  made  at  home  when  there 
is  an  extra  supply  of  milk;  or  skim  milk  may  be 
used. 

American  cheese  is  usually  purchased  by  the  pound. 
A  large  family  may  find,  however,  that  purchasing  a 
whole  cheese  is  a  better  plan,  as  the  cost  will  be  less. 
Cheese  that  is  to  be  kept  for  several  days  after  it  has 
been  cut  should  be  placed  on  a  plate  and  left  un- 
covered in  a  dry  clean  place,  or  it  may  be  covered 
with  a  cloth. 

Some  persons  consider  cheese  hard  to  digest,  and 
this  may  be  so  when  it  is  eaten  too  hurriedly,  or  eaten 
after  a  meal  at  which  enough  food  has  already  been 
eaten.  When  ground  or  grated  cheese  is  combined 
with  other  foods,  it  is  well  digested  by  most  persons. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
CHEESE 

If  there  are  several  kinds  of  cheese  sold  in  the  local 
market  it  would  be  interesting  to  have  a  sample  of  each 
type  in  the  laboratory  for  examination.  Observe  the 
texture  and  flavor.  What  is  the  price  of  each  kind  ? 

CHEESE   SOUFFLE 

I  c.  No.  4  White  Sauce  3  eggs 

I  c.  grated  cheese  Few  grains  cayenne 

Add  the  cheese  and  cayenne  to  the  hot  white  sauce. 
Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  until  they  are  thick  and  lemon 
colored ;  pour  slowly  over  these  the  white  sauce.  Mix 
carefully.  Let  stand  until  cool.  Beat  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  very  stiff.  When  white-sauce  mixture  is  cool, 
fold  in  the  stiffly  beaten  egg-whites.  Turn  into  a  buttered 
baking-dish,  set  the  dish  in  a  pan  of  warm  water  and  bake 
in  a  moderate  oven  until  firm.  Serve  at  once.  The 
baking-dish  may  be  placed  in  a  holder  made  for  the  purpose, 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  75 

or  it  may  be  wrapped  with  a  napkin  before  being  placed 
on  the  table. 

CHEESE   STRATA 

In  the  bottom  of  a  buttered  baking-dish  place  thin 
slices  of  bread,  over  this  pour  hot  No.  3  White  Sauce,  on 
this  a  layer  of  grated  cheese,  then  layers  of  bread,  of  white 
sauce,  and  more  cheese,  until  the  dish  is  filled.  Cover  the 
top  with  buttered  bread  crumbs.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven 
about  thirty  minutes.  Serve  in  baking-dish. 

WELSH   RAREBIT 

|  lb.  grated  cheese  1  egg 

£  c.  cream  or  milk  2  tsp.  butter 

£  tsp.  mustard  Few  grains  cayenne 

%  tsp.  salt  Toast 

Place  the  cheese,  mixed  with  the  cream  or  milk,  in  top 
part  of  double-boiler  and  heat  until  the  cheese  is  melted. 
Then  add  the  beaten  egg,  to  which  the  mustard,  salt  and 
cayenne  have  been  added ;  then  add  the  butter.  Cook 
until  it  thickens,  stirring  constantly.  Pour  over  toast. 
Welsh  rarebit  is  often  made  in  the  chafing-dish. 

BREAD    CRUMBS 

All  crusts  and  pieces  of  bread  should  be  saved  for  bread 
crumbs.  Dry  them  in  a  slow  oven.  Put  through  a  food- 
grinder,  or  crush  by  placing  on  a  bread-board  and  using  a 
rolling-pin.  Store  the  crumbs  in  open  jars,  never  in 
tightly  closed  containers.  If  the  crumbs  are  to  be  kept 
for  several  weeks  or  months,  a  cloth  should  be  tied  over 
the  top  of  the  container. 

Buttered  bread  crumbs,  to  be  used  on  the  top  of  escal- 
loped  dishes,  are  prepared  as  follows : 

1  c.  bread  crumbs  2  tbsp.  butter 

Salt  and  pepper,  if  desired 

Melt  the  butter  in  a  frying-pan.  Add  the  crumbs  with 
which  the  seasonings  have  been  mixed.  Stir  until  the 
butter  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  crumbs. 


76  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Other  cheese  dishes  may  be  made  if  desired. 

The  class  may  be  divided  into  groups  and  each  group 
make  one  recipe,  the  others  copying  the  recipe.  When 
family-size  recipes  are  used,  perhaps  some  of  the  products 
may  be  sold,  either  to  individuals  or  in  the  lunch-room  if 
there  is  one. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  meat  substitutes. 

2.  Why  are  they  called  meat  substitutes? 

3.  From  what  is  cheese  made? 

4.  What  does  the  chemist  find  that  cheese  contains? 

5.  Into  what  two  classes  is  cheese  divided  ? 

6.  Name  some  examples  of  each  class. 

7.  Which  is  the  most  commonly  used  cheese  ? 

8.  How  is  cottage  cheese  made  ? 

9.  Find  out,  if  you  can,  how  American  Cheddar  cheese  is 
made. 

10.  How  is  cheese  kept  in  the  grocery? 

11.  What  is  the  price  per  pound  of  American  Cheddar  cheese  ? 

12.  How  should  cheese  be  kept  in  the  home  ? 

13.  Make  a  luncheon  or  supper  plan  in  which  each  of  the 
cheese  dishes  made  in  the  laboratory  might  be  served. 

MEAT  SUBSTITUTES  (Continued) 

NUTS 

Nuts  in  general  contain  a  large  amount  of  fat  and 
protein  and  may  sometimes  be  substituted  for  meat 
in  the  diet.  They  may  be  used  in  their  natural  form, 
or  they  may  be  ground  and  combined  with  other  foods. 

Peanuts  are  often  used  for  making  "  peanut 
butter",  which  is  a  very  valuable  food. 

English  walnuts,  almonds  and  peanuts  are  the 
varieties  of  nuts  most  used.  These  are  cultivated 
nuts,  grown  in  the  Southern  States  and  California. 
Black  walnuts,  hazel  nuts,  hickory  nuts,  pecans  and 
chestnuts  grow  wild  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  77 

Nuts  should  not  be  eaten  at  the  end  of  a  meal  when 
one  has  already  taken  the  food  needed.  Nuts  may 
be  hard  to  digest  when  eaten  at  this  time,  or  when 
they  are  not  chewed  thoroughly. 

DRIED    LEGUMES 

Peas,  beans,  lentils,  soy  beans  and  cowpeas  belong 
to  the  class  of  vegetable  foods  called  legumes.  They 
contain  a  large  amount  of  protein,  fat,  carbohydrate 
and  mineral  matter. 

Dried  beans,  peas  and  lentils  are  foods  used  es- 
pecially in  winter.  When  serving  them  it  is  not 
necessary  to  use  meat  at  the  same  meal.  Cowpeas 
and  soy  beans,  while  not  so  common,  are  used  in  the 
same  way  as  beans,  peas  and  lentils. 

Legumes  may  be  baked,  boiled  or  combined  in 
some  way  with  other  foods.  Dried  legumes  require 
long  periods  for  cooking.  A  fireless  cooker  is  very 
useful  when  cooking  legumes,  or  the  pressure-cooker 
can  be  used  and  the  time  required  much  shortened. 

Dried  legumes  must  be  thoroughly  cooked  to  make 
them  good  for  food,  since  the  cellulose  in  them  is 
tough.  They  are  often  soaked  in  water  for  several 
hours  before  cooking. 

Dried  legumes  are  usually  purchased  by  the  pound. 
Buying  in  quantity  makes  the  cost  less. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
DRIED    LEGUMES 

Examine  samples  of  beans,  dried  peas,  split  peas,  lentils, 
soy  beans  and  cowpeas.  Compare  the  price  by  the  pound. 
Which  of  these  may  be  purchased  at  groceries  in  the 
neighborhood?  Try  the  seed-store  for  cowpeas  and  soy 
beans. 


78  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

BAKED   BEANS 

1  qt.  white  beans  1  tsp.  mustard 

1  tsp.  soda  \  c.  molasses 

\  Ib.  salt  pork  Salt,  if  needed 

1  small  onion,  if  desired 

Cayenne,  if  desired 

Pick  over,  wash  and  soak  beans  in  cold  water  over- 
night. Pour  off  any  water  remaining.  Put  in  kettle, 
cover  with  water,  add  soda  and  boil  gently  until  the  beans 
are  slightly  softened.  This  boiling  is  sometimes  called 

__,     "  parboiling."      Drain    again. 

Put  the  beans  into  the  bean- 
pot.  Cut  the  pork  into  slices, 
but  do  not  remove  from  the 
rind ;  press  down  into  the  beans 
with  rind  up.  Place  sliced 
onion  on  top.  Mix  the  mo 
lasses,  mustard,  salt  and  cay- 
enne with  one  pint  of  boiling 
water  and  pour  over  beans.  If 
liquid  does  not  show  on  the  sur- 

A  BEAN-POT  USED  FOB  -  -.  -.  ,     .,. 

BAKING  BEANS  face>  add  more   boiling  water. 

Cover  pot.    Bake  in  slow  oven 

six  to  eight  hours.  Uncover  during  the  last  hour,  so  that 
the  beans  will  brown  on  top.  A  fireless  cooker  or  oven 
may  be  used  for  baking  beans. 

NUT  AND   CHEESE   LOAF 

1  c.  cottage  cheese  \  tsp.  pepper 

1  c.  nut  meats  1  tsp.  salt 

1  c.  bread  crumbs  2  tbsp.  chopped  onion 

Juice  of  \  lemon  1  tbsp.  fat 

\  c.  water  or  meat  stock 

Grind  the  nuts;  mix  the  cheese,  nuts,  salt,  pepper, 
crumbs  and  lemon  juice.  Cook  the  onion  with  the  fat 
and  water,  or  with  the  meat  stock,  until  it  is  tender; 
add  to  other  ingredients.  Mix  thoroughly.  Pour  into 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  79 

greased  baking-dish.     Bake  about  twenty  minutes.    Serve 
with  tomato  sauce. 

TOMATO   SAUCE 


1  c.  tomato- juice 

2  tbsp.  flour 


Salt  and  pepper 


1  tbsp.  fat 
1  slice  onion 


Boil  the  onion  in  the  tomato-juice  for  three  minutes. 
Remove  the  onion.     Continue  as  for  any  white  sauce. 


PEA   SANDWICHES 


\  c.  pea  pulp 

1  tbsp.  chopped  nuts 


1  tbsp.  grated  cheese 
Lemon  juice 


Press  canned  peas  through  the  vegetable-ricer.  Measure 
the  pulp,  add  the  cheese,  chopped  nuts  and  enough  lemon 
juice  to  make  the  right 
consistency  for  sandwich 
filling.  Spread  between 
thin  slices  of  bread. 

Plan  a  meal  in  which 
such  sandwiches  would  be 
suitable  to  serve. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What     foodstuffs     are 
found  in  large   amounts   in 
nuts? 

2.  Which  are  the  nuts  com- 
monly used  in  this  locality  ? 

3.  What  is  the  price  per 
pound  of  peanuts?    English 
walnuts  ? 

4.  Is  it  more  expensive  to 
buy  them  shelled? 

5.  How  many  pounds  of  peanuts  in  the  shell  does  it  take  to 
make  one  pound  of  shelled  nuts  ? 

6.  How  is  peanut  butter  made  ? 

7.  What  are  the  commonly  used  dried  legumes? 


FOOD-GRINDER 

Used  for  grinding  meat,  vegetables, 
nuts,  cheese,  bread  and  other  foods. 


80  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

8.  What  foodstuffs  do  they  contain  ? 

9.  Why  are  they  called  meat  substitutes  ? 

10.  Why  are  dried  legumes  soaked  in  water? 

11.  How  should  dried  legumes  be  cooked? 


SALADS 

Salads  may  be  made  from  vegetables,  fruits,  or 
meats ;  or  they  may  be  a  combination  of  vegetables 
and  fruits,  or  of  meats  and  vegetables  to  which  has 
been  added  some  kind  of  dressing  and  perhaps  small 
amounts  of  other  materials  to  give  flavor. 

Salad  dressings  are  of  three  types :  mayonnaise, 
French  and  cooked  dressing,  and  each  type  may  be 
varied,  making  many  kinds. 

Lettuce  is  used  in  the  making  of  many  salads,  often 
only  as  a  " garnish"  which  is  used  to  make  a  dish 
more  attractive.  Lettuce  always  should  be  clean, 
crisp  and  cold  when  used  for  a  salad.  Celery  tops, 
endive,  nasturtium  leaves,  water  cress  and  other  gar- 
nishes are  sometimes  used  for  salad. 

Salad  oil  is  one  of  the  materials  used  in  some 
dressings.  Salad  oil  may  be  made  from  olives, 
when  it  is  called  olive  oil;  or  it  may  be  made  from 
corn  or  cottonseed,  when  it  is  usually  sold  by  a  trade 
name.  When  buying  salad  oil  one  should  examine 
the  label  on  the  can  or  bottle,  to  see  whether  the  oil 
is  made  from  olives  or  other  material,  since  oil  made 
from  corn  or  cottonseed  should  not  be  sold  at  so  high 
a  price  as  olive  oil. 

Eggs  often  form  a  part  of  the  salad  dressing  and, 
when  they  are  combined  with  the  oil  and  used  on  the 
salad,  add  to  its  value  as  a  food.  Whipped  cream 
also  adds  to  the  food  value  of  a  salad. 

When  meat  salads  are  served  for  luncheon  or 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  81 

supper,  no  other  meat  dish  is  needed.  Vegetable 
salads,  when  made  of  the  legumes,  can  be  used  as  a 
meat  substitute.  Fruit  salads  can  be  substituted 
for  dessert  in  many  meals. 

Besides  being  used  as  a  part  of  a  meal,  salads  are 
often  served  with  sandwiches  as  "  refreshments." 

An  attractive  salad  should  have  the  following 
qualities :  freshness,  crispness  and  coolness ;  it  should 
have  an  appetizing  flavor,  and  should  combine  well 
with  the  other  food  served  in  the  meal. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
SALADS,    SALAD   DRESSINGS 

Use  a  corn  oil,  a  cottonseed  oil  and  olive  oil  in  making 
the  following  dressings.  The  class  may  be  divided  into 
groups  for  the  work.  Compare  the  price  of  the  three  kinds 
of  oil.  Compare  the  taste  of  the  dressings. 

Lettuce  should  be  washed,  dried  on  a  cloth,  and  be 
thoroughly  crisp  before  it  is  used  with  salads. 

FRENCH  DRESSING 

1  tbsp.  sugar  \  tsp.  paprika 

2  tbsp.  vinegar  $  tsp.  salt 

4  tbsp.  oil  $  tsp.  white  pepper 

1  tsp.  scraped  onion,  or  onion  juice 

To  the  dry  ingredients  add  the  onion  and  the  vinegar ; 
stir  thoroughly,  add  the  oil,  beat  until  of  a  thick  creamy 
consistency.  French  dressing  may  be  made  in  quantity 
and  kept  for  several  days  in  a  cold  place.  Beat  thoroughly 
every  time  it  is  used. 

MAYONNAISE  DRESSING 

1  egg-yolk  \  tsp.  sugar 

\  tsp.  salt  \  tsp.  mustard 

|  tsp.  paprika  \  c.  oil 

1^  tbsp.  vinegar  or  lemon  juice 


82 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


The  oil  should  be  cold.  Beat  the  egg-yolk  with  the 
Dover  egg-beater  until  it  is  thick  and  lemon-colored; 
add  dry  ingredients.  When  the  mixture  is  well  blended, 
add  a  little  of  the  oil ;  beat,  add  more  oil ;  beat  again. 
When  the  mixture  is  thick,  add  a  little  of  the  lemon  juice 
or  vinegar;  beat.  Then  add  more  oil  and  vinegar  or 
lemon  juice,  beating  constantly.  Sometimes,  in  making 
this  dressing,  the  mixture  separates  or  curdles  and  does 
not  become  thick.  When  this  happens,  beat  another  egg- 
yolk  until  it  is  thick,  and  add  the  salad  dressing  slowly 
to  the  egg,  beating  constantly.  Keep  in  a  cold  place. 


legg 

i  c.  vinegar 

£  c.  milk 

|  tsp.  mustard 


COOKED   DRESSING 


Paprika  if  desired 


\  tsp.  salt 
1  tbsp.  sugar 
\\  tbsp.  flour 
1  tbsp.  butter 


Make  a  white  sauce  from  the  flour,  butter  and  milk ;  add 
the  seasonings.  Beat  the  egg  until  it  is  thick  and  lemon- 
colored.  Gradually  pour  white  sauce  into  the  beaten  egg, 


THREE  SALADS 
Asparagus  tips,  potato  and  head  lettuce. 

stirring  well.  Place  in  double-boiler  and  cook  five  to 
ten  minutes.  Add  the  vinegar  slowly.  If  there  are 
lumps,  strain  through  a  wire  sieve.  Cool. 

If  the  dressing  is  thicker  than  desired,  it  may  be  thinned 
with  a  little  cream  or  milk  when  it  is  to  be  used.  For 
some  salads,  whipped  cream  may  be  added  to  the  dressing. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  83 

SALMON   SALAD 

%  c.  salmon  1  small  chopped  sweet  pickle 

1  tbsp.  chopped  celery  or  shredded  cabbage 
Mayonnaise  dressing 

Drain  oil  from  salmon,  remove  all  pieces  of  bone  and 
skin.  Add  the  celery  or  cabbage  and  the  pickle.  Mix 
carefully  with  a  fork.  Add  dressing.  Place  on  a  bed  of 
shredded  lettuce.  Garnish  with  hard-cooked  egg  if 
desired. 

BANANA   SALAD 

Peel  and  scrape  a  banana.  Slice  lengthwise  and  once 
crosswise.  Arrange  on  lettuce.  Use  cooked  dressing  to 
which  whipped  cream  has  been  added.  Chopped  nuts 
may  be  sprinkled  over  the  top. 

VEGETABLE   SALAD 

Cooked  and  fresh  vegetables  make  good  salads  with  the 
addition  of  French  or  cooked  dressing.  The  following 
combinations  are  suggested : 

Diced  carrots,  peas  and  chopped  peanuts. 

Green  beans,  chopped  onion  and  parsley. 

Potato,  cucumber  and  green  pepper. 

Lima  beans,  carrots  and  peas. 

Tomato ;  stuffed  with  cabbage,  celery  or  cucumber. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  types  of  salad  dressings. 

2.  What  kinds  of  oils  may  be  used  in  making  dressings  ? 

3.  Which  is  most  expensive  ? 

4.  What  is  the  use  of  a  "garnish" ?    What  are  some  materials 
used  for  garnishing? 

5.  When  should  meat  salads  be  served  ?    Prepare  a  plan  for 
a  luncheon  or  supper  in  which  it  is  proper  to  serve  salmon  salad. 

6.  What  kind  of  vegetable  salad  can  be  substituted  for  meat 
in  the  meal  ?    Why  ?     Prepare  a  plan  for  a  meal  in  which  "  Lima 
bean,  carrot  and  pea"  salad  is  suitable. 

7.  Plan  a  luncheon  or  supper  in  which  a  fruit  salad  is  suitable. 


84  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

8.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  salad? 

9.  What  may  be  served  with  salads  ? 

10.  Bring  to  class  a  good  recipe  for  cheese  crackers  and  one 
for  cheese  straws. 

11.  How  should  wafers  be  crisped  when  served  with  salads? 

12.  What  is  "  head  lettuce  "  ?  "  leaf  lettuce  "  ?     What  is  the 
price  of  lettuce  ? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
SERVE   A   LUNCHEON   OR   SUPPER 

Suggested  Menu :   Cream  of  Corn  Soup 
Cabbage  Salad 
Bread  and  Butter 
Baked  Apple  with  Cream 

Make  other  menus  for  supper  or  luncheon. 

DRIED  FRUITS 

Drying  is  one  way  of  preserving  fruits.  Many 
housekeepers  on  farms  dry  apples  and  other  fruits 
at  home,  but  a  very  much  larger  amount  is  dried  by 
commercial  firms.  Many  thousand  tons  of  peaches, 
apricots,  prunes  and  raisins  are  dried  in  California 
every  year  and  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  to  many  other  countries.  Some  of  our 
dried  fruits,  such  as  dates,  figs  and  raisins,  come  from 
foreign  countries. 

Prunes  are  a  kind  of  plum  that  have  been  dried. 
Raisins  are  dried  grapes.  Dates  are  the  fruit  of  the 
date  palm.  Figs  come  from  the  fig  tree. 

Apricots,  peaches  and  prunes  are  usually  purchased 
by  the  pound,  and  when  packed  in  bulk  should  be 
carefully  washed  before  using.  They  are  often 
packed  several  pounds  in  a  box,  and  if  the  whole 
box  is  purchased  are  cheaper  in  price. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  85 

Raisins,  figs  and  dates  of  the  best  grade  are  sold 
in  carefully  wrapped  packages.  They  can  also  be 
purchased  by  the  pound.  "  Seeded  "  raisins  are  sold 
by  the  box,  but  it  is  well  to  look  them  over  carefully 
to  remove  any  seeds  that  may  have  been  left. 

Dried  fruits,  before  cooking,  should  be  washed 
carefully  and  then  soaked  in  cold  water  overnight. 
The  soaking  shortens  the  time  required  for  cooking 
and  develops  the  flavor.  They  should  be  cooked  in 
the  water  in  which  they  have  been  soaked.  A  fire- 
less  cooker  is  useful  in  cooking  dried  fruits  because 
they  require  long  cooking. 

Dried  fruits  are  used  in  place  of  fresh  fruits  or 
canned  fruit,  and  when  well  cooked  make  a  good 
dessert  for  luncheon  and  supper,  or  served  as  the  fruit 
dish  for  breakfast. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
DRIED   BRUITS 

Experiment  :  1.  Wash  one  half  pound  each  of  dried 
peaches,  prunes  and  apricots;  to  each  add  one  pint 
of  water.  Soak  overnight.  Drain  off  and  save  any 
remaining  water.  How  much  does  each  fruit  weigh? 
Explain  what  has  happened. 

2.  Place  the  prunes  in  a  closely  covered  kettle,  add 
liquid  in  which  they  were  soaked.     Set  kettle  inside  of 
large  kettle  of  fireless  cooker,  fill  cooker  kettle  half  full 
of  hot   water.     Cover   cooker   kettle.     Place   on  hot 
radiator    in    cooker.     Cook    about    three    hours.     Do 
not  open  the  cooker  during  this  period.     Remove  prunes 
from  cooker,  add  one  half  cup  of  sugar  and  boil  for  ten 
minutes  over  direct  heat.     Serve  cold. 

3.  Place  apricots  in  a  saucepan,  add  liquid  in  which 
they  were   soaked,   cover  saucepan.     Place   over  fire 


86  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

and  simmer  gently  until  fruit  is  tender.  Hot  water 
may  be  added  if  necessary.  Add  one  half  cup  sugar, 
and  heat  until  sugar  is  melted.  Serve  cold. 

4.  If  there  is  a  steam  cooker  in  the  laboratory,  cook 
the  peaches  in  this.     Follow  the  same  directions  as  for 
Experiment  2,  except  that  the  small  kettle  can  be  set 
directly  on  the  shelf  of  the  steam  cooker. 

5.  Compare  the  fruit  cooked  in  the  different  ways,  as 
to  appearance.     Which  is  the  most  economical  way  of 
cooking? 

PRUNE  WHIP 

1  egg-white  1  c.  prune  pulp 

1  tbsp.  lemon  juice 

Remove  the  seeds  from  the  cooked  prunes,  rub  prunes 
through  a  wire  sieve,  add  lemon  juice.  Heat  pulp.  Beat 
egg-white  very  stiff.  Add  prune  pulp  gradually,  folding 
it  into  the  egg-white.  Pile  on  serving-dish.  Chill  and 
serve  as  dessert. 

DATE  PUDDING 

f  c.  sugar  1  tsp.  baking  powder 

2  eggs  1  c.  dates,  seeded  and  chopped 

j  c.  flour  into  small  pieces 

1  c.  chopped  English  walnut  |  tsp.  salt 
meats 

Beat  the  eggs  slightly,  add  the  sugar,  beat  until  creamy. 
Mix  dates,  nuts,  baking  powder,  flour  and  salt,  and  add 
to  first  mixture.  Mix  and  turn  into  a  greased  baking- 
dish.  Bake  in  moderate  oven  twenty  to  thirty  minutes, 
or  until  the  pudding  just  becomes  firm.  Serve  hot  or 
cold  with  whipped  cream. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  dried  fruits  you  have  seen. 

2.  What  fruits  are  often  dried  at  home? 

3.  What  methods  are  used  in  drying  fruits  at  home  ?  Farmers* 
Bulletin  No.  841,  "Drying  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in  the  Home", 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  87 

from  Division  of  Publications,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  will  tell  you  how  fruits  are  dried. 

4.  What  fruit  are  prunes  ?   raisins  ? 

5.  From  which  countries   do   we   obtain  dates,   figs  and 
raisins  ? 

6.  What  is  the  price  per  pound  of  apricots,  prunes  and  dried 
peaches? 

7.  In  what  kinds  of  packages  may  dates,  figs  and  raisins  be 
purchased  ? 

8.  What  is  the  price  of  the  ordinary  package  of  dates?   of 
figs?     Read    the    label   on   the    package   to   find    weight    of 
contents. 

9.  Give  general  directions  for  cooking  dried  fruits. 

10.   Plan  a  luncheon  or  supper  in  which  date  pudding  might 
be  used  correctly  as  the  dessert. 


QUICK  BREADS 

All  breads  are  divided  into  two  classes,  (1)  quick 
breads  and  (2)  yeast  breads.  Quick  breads  are  made 
in  a  shorter  time  than  is  required  for  making  yeast 
breads,  and  are  generally  served  hot. 

A  quick  bread  requires  the  following  ingredients : 
flour,  a  liquid,  salt  and  a  leavening  agent.  To  these 
may  be  added  some  other  ingredients,  not  necessary 
but  often  desired,  such  as  shortening,  sweetening, 
flavoring  and  eggs. 

White,  whole  wheat  and  Graham  flours,  and  corn 
meal,  are  generally  used  in  the  making  of  quick 
breads.  Other  flours  that  can  be  used  are  corn,  rice, 
rye,  buckwheat,  barley  and  potato  flours.  Corn 
meal  is  used  more  extensively  in  the  South  than 
elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  Since  corn  is  a  cereal 
it  is  a  very  valuable  food ;  therefore  corn  meal  and 
other  corn  products  should  be  used  in  greater 
quantities  than  they  are  in  most  families.  There 


88  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

are  two  kinds  of  corn  meal,  (1)  yellow,  made  from 
yellow  corn,  and  (2)  white,  made  from  white  corn. 
The  flavor  differs  slightly. 

The  material  added  to  any  bread  to  make  it 
"light"  is  called  a  leavening  agent.  The  leavening 
agents  commonly  used  are  air,  steam,  baking  powder, 
soda  and  yeast ;  all  except  the  last  are  the  ones  used 
in  quick  breads. 

Air  is  added  by  beating  eggs  very  light  and  folding 
them  into  the  flour  mixture,  or  by  rapidly  beating  the 
flour  mixture  itself.  The  air  expands  when  heated, 
causing  the  mixture  to  rise. 

When  the  heat  in  the  oven  turns  the  water  which 
is  in  the  flour  mixture  into  steam,  further  heat  causes 
the  steam  to  expand,  and  this  causes  the  flour  mix- 
ture to  stretch,  thus  making  it  "rise."  Popovers 
are  a  kind  of  quick  bread  made  to  rise  with  air  and 
steam. 

Baking  powder  is  a  compound  made  of  baking 
soda,  an  acid  substance  and  a  starchy  material. 
The  acid  substance  used  varies  with  different  baking 
powders.  Some  of  the  good  baking  powders  are 
made  by  combining  cream  of  tartar  (the  acid  sub- 
stance), baking  soda  and  starch.  Whenever  baking 
soda  is  put  with  an  acid  and  moisture  is  added,  carbon 
dioxide  gas  is  formed.  This  is  what  happens  when 
baking  powder  is  put  in  a  flour  mixture,  —  the 
baking  powder  supplying  the  acid  and  soda,  while  the 
moisture  is  supplied  by  the  flour  mixture.  When 
heat  is  applied,  this  gas  expands  the  flour  mixture 
and  causes  it  to  rise. 

Baking  powder  is  used  when  sweet  milk  or  water  is 
the  liquid  used  in  the  flour  mixture. 

It  is  never  wise  to  buy  cheap  baking  powder, 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  89 

for  it  is  often  poorly  made  and  does  not  produce 
good  results. 

Baking  soda  is  used  with  sour  milk  or  buttermilk. 
The  sour  milk  and  buttermilk  contain  the  acid  needed 
to  combine  with  the  soda  to  form  the  carbon  dioxide 
gas.  Soda  is  often  used  when  molasses  is  needed  in 
the  recipe,  because  some  kinds  of  molasses  contain 
a  good  deal  of  acid  ;  but  much  molasses  that  is  now 
sold  is  not  very  acid,  and  soda  must  be  used  with  it 
carefully.  Baking  soda  is  difficult  to  use  correctly 
with  milk  in  cookery  because  the  amount  of  acid 
present  in  the  milk  varies. 

HOME  PROBLEMS  AND   QUESTIONS 

Make  a  list  of  the  brands  of  baking  powder  that 
you  have  seen  advertised  or  used.  In  what  kind  of 
container  is  baking  powder  sold ?  Why? 

What  is  the  difference  in  price  per  pound  when 
baking  powder  is  bought  in  a  one  pound  container, 
one  half  pound  and  one  fourth  pound  ? 

Is  corn  meal  sold  by  the  pound  or  in  the  pack- 
age? 

Which  is  the  more  commonly  used  in  this  locality, 
white  or  yellow  corn  meal  ?  Why  ? 

Make  a  list  of  firms  making  flour  which  you  have 
seen  advertised.  Is  there  a  flour  mill  in  the  neighbor- 
hood ?  If  so,  perhaps  the  teacher  can  arrange  to  go 
through  the  flour  mill  with  the  girls.  In  that  case, 
write  down  all  the  processes  through  which  the 
wheat  goes  in  becoming  flour. 


90  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
QUICK   BREADS 

In  all  recipes  sift  the  flour  before  measuring. 

BAKING-POWDER   BISCUITS 

|  c.  milk  2  tsp.  baking  powder 

1  c.  flour  1  tbsp.  fat 

|  tsp.  salt 

Add  the  salt  and  baking  powder  to  the  flour ;  sift  again. 
Cut  the  fat  into  the  flour,  using  two  knives.  Add  the 
liquid  and  mix  quickly.  Place  on  floured  board,  roll  one 
half  to  three  fourths  inch  in  thickness,  cut  with  biscuit- 
cutter,  place  in  baking-pan.  Have  oven  hot  when  biscuits 
are  put  in.  Bake  fifteen  minutes. 

MUFFINS 

2  c.  flour  2  tbsp.  sugar 
4  tsp.  baking  powder  1  c.  milk 

|  tsp.  salt  2  tbsp.  melted  butter 

1  egg 

Sift  flour,  baking  powder,  salt  and  sugar  together. 
Beat  egg  slightly,  add  milk.  Stir  the  flour  mixture  into 
the  liquid,  add  the  melted  butter.  Place  in  greased  muffin 
tins.  Have  oven  moderately  warm  when  muffins  are 
put  in.  Bake  about  twenty  minutes. 

SOUTHERN   SPOON   CORN   BREAD 

2  c.  white  corn  meal  2  eggs 

2^  c.  boiling  water  1£  c.  buttermilk 

1|  tbsp.  melted  fat  1  tsp.  soda 
1|  tsp.  salt 

Add  corn  meal  gradually  to  boiling  water  and  let  stand 
until  cool.  Beat  egg  yolks  slightly ;  add  salt,  buttermilk 
and  soda ;  mix  immediately  with  corn  meal.  Beat  two 
minutes,  add  the  stiffly  beaten  egg-whites.  Put  in  buttered 
baking-dish.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  forty-five  minutes. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY       91 

CAKE 

Cake,  well  made  and  well  baked,  is  not  harmful  if 
eaten  slowly  and  not  in  too  great  quantity. 

Children  should  not  be  allowed  to  eat  large  amounts 
of  cake  because  it  contains  a  good  deal  of  sugar,  and 
although  sugar  is  a  good  food,  yet  when  too  much  is 
eaten  it  may  irritate  the  stomach  and  cause  trouble 
in  digestion.  Then  too,  cake,  like  "new"  bread, 
is  so  soft  and  tender  that  it  is  a  temptation  to  swallow 
it  without  proper  chewing.  When  too  much  cake 
is  eaten  it  spoils  the  appetite  for  other  more  useful 
foods,  such  as  milk  and  vegetables. 

Cookies  are  best  for  little  children  because  they 
are  drier  and  require  more  chewing.  Cake  should  be 
eaten  at  mealtime  and  not  as  a  "piece"  between 
meals. 

All  cakes  may  be  placed  in  two  classes:  (1)  those 
made  without  fat,  such  as  sponge  cake,  and  (2)  those 
made  with  fat,  such  as  plain  butter  cakes.  A  plain 
cake  recipe  may  be  varied  in  a  great  many  ways, 
thereby  affording  different  kinds  of  cake.  Some  of 
the  materials  that  may  be  added  to  change  the  taste 
and  appearance  are  spices,  flavoring  extracts,  fruits, 
nuts  and  chocolate.  Butter  has  been  considered  the 
only  fat  suitable  to  use  in  making  cake,  but  with 
butter  high  in  price  many  have  used  other  fats  and 
found  them  very  good.  Some  of  these  are  oleo- 
margarine, corn  oil,  cottonseed  oil  and  other  vege- 
table fats. 

Pastry  flour  is  often  used  in  cake-making  and 
makes  a  tenderer  cake  than  many  bread  flours.  A 
bread  flour  made  from  soft  wheat  is  better  for  use  in 
cake  than  one  made  from  hard  wheat. 


92 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


When  too  much  sugar  is  used,  it  makes  the  cake 

more    crumbly   and    the   crust   sticky   and    tough. 

Honey   or   syrup   sometimes    may    be    used   in   a 

cake  in  place  of  sugar. 

Baking  powder,  soda, 
eggs  and  air  are  the 
leavening  agents  used  in 
cakes. 

Loaf  and  layer  cakes 
are  flour  mixtures  called 
thick  batters,  while  cookies 
are  called  stiff  doughs.  A 
batter  is  a  flour  mixture 
that  is  stirred  with  a 
spoon.  A  dough  is  a  mix- 
ture stiff  enough  to  be 
kneaded  and  rolled. 

Cakes  and  cookies 
should  be  kept  in  tight 
metal  containers  so  that 

they  will  not  dry  out,  and  so  that  they  will  not 

absorb  moisture  from  the  air. 


CAI 


-MIXER 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
CAKE-MAKING 

Cakes  made  with  fat :  The  following  method  is  generally 
used  in  making  cakes  with  fat : 

1.  Measure  all  ingredients. 

2.  Grease  the  cake-pans. 

3.  Cream  the  fat  by  rubbing  and  beating  with  a 

wooden  spoon. 

4.  Add  sugar  gradually,  beating  the  mixture  until 

it  is  of  a  creamy  consistency. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  93 

5.  Beat  yolk  of  eggs  until  it  is  thick  and  lemon- 

colored.     Add  to  butter  and  sugar. 

6.  Add  the  baking  powder  to  part  of  the  flour. 

7.  Add  the  rest  of  the  flour  and  milk  alternately  to 

the  egg  and  sugar  mixture. 

8.  Add  vanilla  and  baking  powder. 

9.  Beat  egg-whites  very  stiff  and  fold  into  mixture. 

10.  Half  fill  greased  pans.     Bake. 

11.  Fruit  or  nuts  should  be  mixed  with  a  little  of 

the  flour  and  added  just  before  the  egg-whites. 

STANDARD   CAKE 

\  c.  butter  ^  c.  milk 

1  c.  sugar  .  1|  c.  flour 

2  eggs  2|  tsp.  baking  powder 

|  tsp.  vanilla 

This  cake  recipe  may  be  varied  by  adding  one  cup 
chopped  nuts ;  or  1  tablespoon  spice ;  or  two  ounces 
melted  chocolate ;  or  one  half  cup  currants. 

Cakes  made  without  fat.     The  following  is  the  method 
used  in  making  cakes  without  fat : 

1.  Sift  flour  and  sugar  several  times  before  measur- 

ing. 

2.  Beat  yolks  of  eggs  until  the  mass  is  thick  and 

lemon-colored. 

3.  Add  sugar  gradually,  beating  with  Dover  egg- 

beater. 

4.  Add  lemon  juice  or  other  flavoring. 

5.  Beat  egg-whites  until  very  stiff. 

6.  Partially  fold  egg-white  into  sugar  and  egg  mix- 

ture. 

7.  Remove  egg-beater;    use  spatula,  and  fold  in 

flour  and  salt  very  carefully. 

8.  Bake  in  a  tube  cake-pan,  unbuttered. 

9.  Bake  forty  to  sixty  minutes  in  a  slow  oven. 

10.   Do  not  open  oven  door  for  first  twenty  minutes. 


94  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

11.   After  removing  cake  from  oven,  invert  pan  on 
cake-rack,  but  do  not  remove  cake  until  cold. 


SPONGE   CAKE 


6  eggs  Grated  rind  of  \  lemon 

1  c.  sugar  1  c.  flour 

1  tbsp.  lemon  juice  \  tsp.  salt 

BOILED   FROSTING 

1  c.  sugar  \  c.  water 

1  tsp.  flavoring  1  egg-white 

Mix  sugar  with  water  and  boil  until  it  "  spins  a  thread  " 
(232°  F.  on  the  thermometer).  Beat  egg-white  stiff; 
over  this  pour  the  syrup  slowly,  beating  all  the  time  until 
it  first  begins  to  stiffen.  Add  flavoring  and  spread  over 
cooled  cake. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  "leavening  agent"? 

2.  Name  the  leavening  agents  used  in  quick  breads;    in 
cakes ;  in  yeast  bread. 

3.  What  leavening  agent  is  used  with  sweet  milk?  with  sour 
milk?  with  molasses? 

4.  Explain  the  action  of  baking  powder  in  a  flour  mixture. 

5.  Explain  the  action  of  soda  in  a  flour  mixture. 

6.  What  is  the  leavening  agent  used  in  sponge  cake  ?  Explain 
the  action. 

7.  Into  what  two  classes  may  cakes  be  divided?    Give  ex- 
amples under  each  class. 

8.  Give  the  proportions  of  ingredients  used  in  a  standard  cake. 

9.  How  may  this  be  varied  ? 

10.  Give  the  general  rules  for  making  a  cake  with  butter; 
without  butter. 

11.  Give    directions    and    proportions    for    baking-powder 
biscuits. 

12.  What  kind  of  flour  may  be  used  in  cakes  ? 

13.  Define  the  terms  "dough"  and  "batter." 

14.  When  and  how  should  cake  be  eaten  ? 

15.  Why  are  cookies  best  for  little  children? 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY      95 

THE  SCHOOL  LUNCH 

Many  children  must  carry  their  lunch  to  school 
unless  the  school  has  a  lunch-room  where  lunch  may 
be  purchased.  It  is  very  important  that  the  lunch 
be  of  the  right  kind  for  the  child,  that  it  be  packed  in  a 
way  to  keep  it  in  good  condition,  and  that  it  be  eaten 
in  an  orderly  way  at  the  school. 

First  let  us  consider  what  foods  are  good  to  use 
in  the  school  lunch.  Sandwiches  are  important  and 
should  be  made  from  well  made,  thinly  sliced  bread, 
with  butter  or  with  a  good  filling.  Eggs,  meat,  dates, 
figs,  peanut  butter,  lettuce,  nuts  and  cheese  are  some 
of  the  foods  that  are  good  for  fillings,  and  there  are 
many  ways  of  combining  them. 

Milk  is  excellent  to  include  in  any  lunch,  and 
when  one  wishes  to  vary  the  taste  it  may  be  com- 
bined with  other  materials  and  made  into  custards, 
blanc  mange,  cocoa,  or  soups.  Soups  or  cocoa  can 
be  carried  to  school  in  a  thermos  bottle,  and  some- 
thing hot  on  a  cold  day  is  very  good. 

Rice  may  be  prepared  in  many  ways  for  the  school 
lunch.  Cookies,  -simple  little  cakes,  or  sweet  crackers 
are  always  good.  Fruit,  raw  or  cooked,  should  be 
used  often. 

Tin  buckets  or  tin  boxes  keep  the  lunch  in  the  best 
condition.  Lunch-boxes  with  a  thermos  bottle 
slipped  in  the  top  may  be  purchased,  but  they  are 
expensive. 

Pasteboard  boxes  are  not  good  because  they  can- 
not be  thoroughly  cleaned.  Newspapers  should  not 
be  used  for  wrapping  lunches ;  if  paper  must  be  used, 
choose  clean  wrapping-paper. 

Oiled  or  waxed  paper  should  be  used  for  separately 


96 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


wrapping  sandwiches,  cakes  and  other  foods  to  go  in 
the  lunch.  This  paper  can  be  purchased  at  little  cost 
and  keeps  the  food  hi  better  condition.  Covered 
glasses  should  be  used  for  custards  and  similar  foods. 
Paper  napkins,  to  be  used  as  a  cover  for  the  desk  or 
table,  and  for  wiping  the  fingers,  should  be  in  every 
lunch.  Each  child  should  have  a  drinking-cup  and 
whatever  silver  is  needed  for  eating  the  lunch.  In 


LUNCH-BOX 

With  a  thermos  bottle,  oiled  paper,  drinking-cup,  paper  napkins  and 
covered  glass. 

packing  the  lunch,  place  the  articles  in  the  box  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  will  jar  as  little  as  possible. 

In  some  schools  the  girls  in  the  cooking  class  pre- 
pare a  hot  dish  for  luncheon  at  noon ;  in  other  places 
the  mothers  send  from  home  a  hot  soup,  cocoa,  or  stew 
in  a  fireless  cooker. 

Before  eating  the  lunch,  the  hands  and  face  should 
be  washed.  Every  child  should  have  his  or  her  own 
soap  and  towel  to  use.  The  lunch  should  be  eaten 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  97 

slowly,  either  at  the  desk  or  at  the  table  provided  for 
that  purpose,  and  the  very  best  table  manners  should 
be  practiced.  After  finishing  the  lunch;  pupils 
should  put  the  room  in  good  order. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
THE    SCHOOL   LUNCH 

SANDWICHES 

Breads  good  to  use  for  sandwiches  are  white  yeast  bread, 
whole  wheat  bread,  brown  bread,  nut  bread  and  raisin 
bread.  The  butter  used  should  be  creamed  by  stirring 
and  beating  with  a  spoon  until  it  is  creamy  instead  of 
solid.  A  spatula  is  best  to  use  for  spreading  butter  on 
the  bread.  The  slices  of  bread  coming  together  in  the 
loaf  should  be  put  together  in  the  sandwich  so  that 
they  "  fit." 

Sandwiches  for  the  lunch  may  be  varied  in  three  ways : 

(1)  by  using  different  kinds  of  bread, 

(2)  by  using  different  kinds  of  filling, 

(3)  by  cutting  the  bread  into  different  shapes. 

The  following  are  some  good  sandwich  fillings.  Perhaps 
some  of  the  members  of  the  class  can  suggest  others. 

1.  Date  paste,  made  of  chopped  dates  and  a  little  water, 
cooked  together  until  a  paste  is  formed.     Lemon  juice 
and  chopped  nuts  may  be  added. 

2.  Jelly,  jam,  or  marmalade. 

3.  Cottage  cheese  with  pimento  or  nuts. 

4.  Lettuce  with  salad  dressing. 

5.  Hard-cooked  eggs,  put  through  vegetable-ricer  and 
seasoned.     Minced  ham  or  salad  dressing  may  be  added. 

6.  "  Left-over  "  meat,  chopped  and  seasoned,  or  mixed 
with  salad  dressing. 

7.  Cooked  dried  beans,  put  through  a  colander  and 
mixed  with  cream,  or  salad  dressing  and  chopped  pickle. 

8.  Pea  pulp  with  grated  cheese  and  nuts. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


1  c.  brown  flour 
1  c.  white  flour 
1  c.  sweet  milk 
f  c.  sugar 


NUT   BREAD 

\  c.  chopped  nut  meats 
2  tsp.  baking  powder 
\  tsp.  salt 
\  egg 


Mix  a  little  of  the  flour  with  the  nuts ;  mix  a  little  with 
the  baking  powder.  Beat  the  egg,  add  the  sugar  and 
salt.  Add  the  sweet  milk  and  flour  alternately ;  then  the 


BUSY  COOKS  IN  A  RURAL  SCHOOL 
Perhaps  they  are  preparing  the  noon  lunch. 


Pour  into  greased  bread-pan. 
Bake  one  hour  in  a  moderate 


nuts  and  baking  powder. 
Let  rise  twenty  minutes, 
oven. 

DATE   CAKES 

1  lb.  dates  2£  c.  rolled  oats 

1  c.  brown  sugar  2|  c.  flour 

1  c.  water  1  c.  granulated  sugar 

1  c.  fat  |  tsp.  salt 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  99 

Wash,  seed  and  chop  dates ;  add  brown  sugar  and  one 
half  the  water ;  cook  until  a  paste  is  formed.  Cream  fat 
and  granulated  sugar  together.  Add  the  salt.  Add  re- 
mainder of  water,  flour  and  rolled  oats,  alternately.  Place 
a  little  of  the  mixture  on  the  bread-board,  roll  very  thin. 
Over  the  top  of  half  the  dough  spread  some  of  the  date 
paste ;  fold  the  other  half  of  the  dough  over  this ;  press 
together  gently.  Cut  with  sharp  knife  into  rectangular 
pieces,  any  size  desired.  Place  on  baking-sheets  and  bake 
in  a  moderate  oven  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  Never  try 
to  roll  more  than  a  small  portion  of  the  dough  at  a  time, 
because  it  is  difficult  to  fold  over  a  large  amount. 


BAKED    CUSTARD 

1  pt.  milk  2  eggs 

2  tbsp.  sugar  \  tsp.  vanilla 

|  tsp.  salt 

Scald  the  milk,  sugar  and  salt  together.  Beat  the  eggs 
slightly,  pour  the  scalded  milk  over  them  gradually ;  add 
vanilla,  stir  well.  Pour  into  cups  or  ramekins.  Set  in 
pan  of  warm  water ;  bake  in  a  moderate  oven  until  a  knife 
thrust  through  the  middle  of  the  custard  will  come  out 
clean. 
Directions.  Obtain  several  good  containers  and  other 

equipment  necessary  for  packing  lunches.     Divide  the 

class  into  groups,  and  have  each  group  prepare  foods 

suitable  to  use  in  the  school  lunch. 
Pack  the  following  lunches  : 

(1)  Nut  bread  and  butter  sandwiches  (two) 
Lettuce  sandwich 

One  orange 

Date  cookies  (two) 

(2)  Milk 

Egg  sandwiches  (two) 
Jelly  sandwich 
Baked  apple 


100  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

(3)   Bread  and  butter  sandwiches  (two),  cut  in  tri- 
angular shape 

Nut  bread  and  butter  sandwich 
Custard 

Dates,  raisins,  or  figs 

Plan  some  lunches,  in  which  cocoa,  or  soup,  or  meat 
stew  is  served  at  school  and  the  rest  of  the  lunch  is 
brought  in  the  lunch-box. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kind  of  lunch-boxes  should  be  used ?    Why? 

2.  Name  the  other  equipment  needed  for  packing  a  lunch  well. 

3.  What  is  the  price  of  oiled  paper?    Where  can  it  be  ob- 
tained in  this  locality? 

4.  How  should  the  school  lunch  be  served  ? 

5.  What  rules  should  be  followed  when  eating  the  lunch? 

6.  How  should  good  sandwiches  be  made? 

7.  Should  the  daughter  in  the  house  help  prepare  the  lunch 
for  school? 

8.  What  foods  should  be  prepared  in  sufficient  quantity  for 
several  lunches,  to  be  used  on  different  days? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
SERVE   A   LUNCHEON   OR   SUPPER 

Suggested  Menu :   Cheese  strata 

Lettuce  sandwiches 
Dried  peaches 
Sponge  cake 

Estimate  the  cost  of  the  meal. 

Serve  several  luncheons  or  suppers,  if  there  is  time  in  the 
course. 

If  possible,  serve  a  buffet  supper,  inviting  the  mothers 
as  guests. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  101 

THE  DINNER  PI4\i']V,      0 


Dinner,  in  most  homes,  is  the'  ^ 
served  during  the  day  because  it  consists  usually  of  a 
greater  variety  of  food  than  do  the  other  two. 

The  home  dinner  may  be  planned  in  one  of  three 
ways  :  (1)  Meat,  with  one  or  two  vegetables  ; 
bread  and  butter  with  jam,  jelly,  or  preserves; 
dessert.  (2)  Meat,  with  one  or  two  vegetables; 
salad  ;  bread  and  butter  with  jam,  jelly,  or  preserves  ; 
dessert.  (3)  Soup  ;  meat,  with  one  or  two  vege- 
tables; bread  and  butter  with  jam,  jelly,  or  pre- 
serves ;  salad  ;  dessert.  A  very  simple  meal  is 
a  one-dish  meal;  that  is,  a  combination  dish,  con- 
sisting of  both  meat  and  vegetables,  served  with 
bread  and  butter,  and  perhaps  a  sweet  or  dessert  of 
some  kind. 

The  plan  which  is  best  to  use  for  dinner  de- 
pends upon  several  things  :  (1)  what  kind  of  meals 
have  already  been  eaten  during  the  day,  (2)  what 
amount  of  money  can  be  spent  for  food  and  (3) 
what  amount  of  time  should  be  spent  in  getting 
the  meal. 

When  meals  are  planned,  they  should  be  arranged 
for  the  whole  day  at  least.  If  a  very  light  break- 
fast and  a  simple  luncheon  or  supper  are  to  be  served, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a  heavier  dinner  than  when  a 
good  deal  of  heavy  food  (food  containing  much  food 
value)  is  served  for  breakfast,  luncheon,  or  supper. 
Then,  too,  the  kinds  of  food  served  in  any  one  meal 
must  be  considered  when  the  others  are  planned,  be- 
cause variety  is  necessary  in  the  diet.  Foods  used 
often  should  be  varied  by  preparing  them  in  different 
ways;  for  example,  potatoes  should  not  be  served 


102  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

mashed  ev^ery  day  for  dinner,  but  should  be  served  in 
other  ways  oil  different  days. 

./••  p  (is/npt  necessary  to  have  soup  at  the  beginning 
oT  a  dinner/ nor  is  it  necessary  always  to  have  a 
dessert  at  the  end.  The  housewife  should  not  serve 
a  heavy  dessert,  such  as  a  pie  or  rich  pudding,  at  the 
end  of  a  meal  in  which  a  meat,  vegetables  and  a  salad 
have  been  served.  It  is  better  to  serve  a  dessert  of 
fruit,  or  plain  gelatine  pudding,  at  the  end  of  such  a 
meal. 

Too  many  vegetables  should  not  be  served  at 
dinner ;  the  general  rule  of  serving  two  is  a  good  one 
to  follow.  Lettuce  is  usually  served  with  any  salad 
and  would  make  the  third.  In  choosing  the  two,  it 
is  better  to  select  one  starchy  and  one  green  vegetable, 
the  two  being  pleasing  in  taste  when  eaten  together. 
When  a  vegetable  salad  is  served,  it  can  take  the 
place  of  one  of  the  cooked  vegetables. 

Only  one  kind  of  meat  should  be  served.  A  meat 
or  fish  salad  should  not  be  served  when  another 
meat  dish  is  being  used.  Eggs  are  not  needed  when 
meat  is  served,  nor  should  meat  be  served  with 
baked  beans. 

The  same  vegetable  should  not  be  served  twice 
in  the  same  meal ;  for  example,  do  not  serve  potatoes 
in  a  hot  dish  and  also  in  a  salad,  nor  rice  as  a  vege- 
table and  in  a  rice  pudding,  nor  tomato  salad  and 
tomato  sauce  for  the  meat.  Do  not  serve  more 
than  one  kind  of  " sweet"  at  a  meal. 

When  a  housekeeper  must  do  everything  herself, 
without  help,  she  should  consider  the  length  of  time 
needed  in  the  preparation  of  a  meal.  Some  dishes 
require  a  much  longer  time  in  their  preparation  than 
it  is  right  for  the  housekeeper  to  spend  when  there 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


103 


are  others  more  easily  prepared  that  are  quite  as 
good.  No  person  should  spend  too  large  a  share 
of  her  time  in  cooking,  as  there  are  other  things  as 
important  to  be  done.  It  is  necessary  to  prepare 
enough  food  and  to  have  it  well  cooked,  but  " fancy" 
cookery  takes  too  much  time  when  the  housekeeper 
does  all  of  the  household  work  in  her  home. 

It  is  wise  to  think  about  the  amount  of  fuel  used 
in  getting  a  meal  if  other  than  a  coal  or  wood  range 
is  used.  Sometimes 
it  is  economical  to 
plan  a  meal  with 
all  the  main  dishes 
baked  in  the  oven, 
or  cooked  in  the 
steam  cooker,  or  in 
the  fireless  cooker, 
instead  of  cooking 
one  dish  in  the  oven 
and  one  or  two  on 
top  of  the  stove. 

lo  plan,  COOk  and     DEEP-FAT  KETTLE,  WITH  FRYING-BASKET 

serve  a  good  dinner 

is  a  difficult  piece  of  work,  and  any  girl  deserves 
praise  when  she  can  do  this  at  home  without  her 
mother's  help. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

LEFT-OVER   DISHES 

Experiments:  1.  Place  the  kettle  of  fat  over  the  fire  and 
heat  until  it  begins  to  "  foam  "  on  the  surface.  Place  a 
cube  of  bread  in  the  fat.  After  one  minute  remove  the 
bread ;  break  it  apart.  Has  the  bread  absorbed  the  fat  ? 


104 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


2.  Continue  heating  the  fat  until  blue  smoke  rises 
from  the  surface.  Place  another  cube  of  bread  in  the 
fat.  After  one  minute  remove  the  bread;  break  it 
apart.  Has  the  fat  been  absorbed  as  in  the  bread  used 
in  No.  1  ?  Which  temperature  would  be  best  to  use  in 
frying  croquettes?  Can  you  explain  why?  Would 
you  want  the  fat  as  hot  for  frying  doughnuts?  Why? 


CROQUETTES 

Croquettes  may  be  made  of  left-over  meat,  vegetables,  or 
cereals,  alone  or  combined,  and  may  be  mixed  with  thick 
gravies,  No.  4  White  Sauce,  or  egg.  The  croquettes 


No.  2,  CROQUETTES.     No.  3,  MEAT  LOAF.     No.  5,  PEA  SANDWICHES 

should  be  mixed,  the  hot  sauce  added,  and  then  allowed  to 
cool.  Be  careful  to  add  only  enough  sauce  or  eggs  to 
bind  together  the  ingredients. 

When  the  mixture  is  cold,  form  the  croquettes  into  the 
desired  shape,  either  ball,  pyramid,  or  roll.  Beat  an  egg 
slightly,  add  two  tablespoons  of  water,  and  mix  thoroughly. 
Use  bread  crumbs  that  are  very  fine.  Roll  the  croquette 
in  the  egg,  then  in  the  crumbs,  then  in  egg,  and  then  in 
crumbs.  Place  croquettes  in  frying-basket  and  lower  the 
basket  carefully  into  the  hot  fat.  Fry  until  brown.  Re- 
move croquettes  and  place  on  crumpled  brown  paper  to 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  105 

drain.  Be  careful  not  to  pierce  or  break  the  crust  on  the 
croquette,  either  while  it  is  in  the  fat  or  when  removing 
it  from  the  fat. 

The  following  are  some  combinations  used  in  croquettes : 

SALMON   CROQUETTES 

f  c.  No.  4  White  Sauce 

f  c.  canned  salmon,  flaked 

Lemon  juice,  paprika  and  salt  to  taste 

POTATO   CROQUETTES 

1  pt.  mashed  potatoes  1  tsp.  chopped  parsley 

2  tbsp.  butter  1  egg  yolk  or  \  egg 

|  tsp.  salt  Onion  juice  if  desired 

BEEF  AND   RICE   CROQUETTES 

1  c.  finely  chopped  beef  |  tsp.  pepper 

\  c.  cooked  rice  Tomato  sauce  or  left-over  gravy 

SCALLOPED   HAM  AND  EGGS 

2  hard-cooked  eggs  1  c.  No.  2  White  Sauce 

\  c.  chopped  ham  Buttered  bread  crumbs 

In  the  bottom  of  a  buttered  baking-dish,  or  ramekin, 
place  a  layer  of  crumbs,  then  a  layer  of  white  sauce,  then 
a  layer  of  the  eggs  sliced,  then  white  sauce,  then  ham, 
then  crumbs;  continue  until  the  dish  is  filled.  Finish 
with  a  layer  of  crumbs.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  until 
crumbs  are  browned  and  ingredients  thoroughly  heated 
through. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  material  used  for  binding  together  the  in- 
gredients in  each  of  the  croquette  recipes  ? 

2.  What  would  be  the  result  if  too  much  white  sauce  were 
added  to  the  croquette  mixture? 

.  3.   What  are  other  recipes  for  using  left-overs? 

4.  Give  three  general  plans  for  dinner. 

5.  What  points  must  be  considered  when  planning  a  dinner? 


106  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

6.  Should  meals  be  planned  singly  or  for  the  day?     Why? 

7.  Give  the  general  rules  to  follow  in  planning  the  vegetables 
for  dinner. 

8.  What  are  some  reasons  for  not  serving  more  than  one 
meat  for  dinner? 

9.  What  should  not  be  served  at  a  dinner  where  meat  is  used  ? 

10.  Should  the  same  food  be  served  twice  in  one  meal  ?    Give 
examples. 

11.  In  what  way  may  fuel  be  saved  in  getting  a  dinner? 

12.  Plan  some  dinners  that  would  be  economical  as  to  price 
and  time,  and  that  would  be  pleasing  in  taste  and  appearance. 

VEGETABLES 

The  term  vegetable  includes  a  large  class  of  foods 
which  are  used  in  great  quantities  in  our  diet. 
Vegetables  of  many  kinds  can  now  be  had  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  because  the  canned  and  dried 
vegetables,  like  the  fresh  ones,  can  be  shipped  suc- 
cessfully from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another. 
In  large  city  markets  a  great  variety  of  fresh  vege- 
tables can  be  bought,  even  in  midwinter.  Hot- 
house and  imported  vegetables  are  expensive  and 
in  many  cases  not  of  good  flavor.  Lettuce  is  now 
used  by  many  households  at  all  seasons  of  the  year ; 
it  is  usually  good  when  carefully  selected,  and  it 
satisfies  the  desire  for  something  green  during  the 
winter. 

Vegetables  are  important  in  the  diet  because  they 
furnish  a  large  share  of  the  mineral  matter  needed 
by  the  body.  They  supply  carbohydrates,  in  the 
form  of  starch  and  sugar,  and  also  supply  bulk  in 
the  diet. 

There  are  several  classifications  given  for  vege- 
tables ;  perhaps  the  best  one  to  use  is  that  which 
divides  them  into  green  and  starchy  vegetables. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  107 

The  green  vegetables  are  sometimes  called  watery 
or  succulent  vegetables.  They  contain  very  little 
starch,  but  are  valuable  as  food  for  their  mineral 
matter,  and  for  the  cellulose  and  the  vitamines  they 
supply.  They  are  useful  because  they  furnish  variety 
in  our  meals.  Such  vegetables  as  lettuce,  cabbage, 
Brussels  sprouts,  celery,  cucumbers,  radishes,  onions 
and  tomatoes  are  green  vegetables. 

Green  vegetables  are  of  two  kinds,  (1)  those  with  a 
mild  flavor,  such  as  celery  and  squash,  and  (2)  those 
with  a  strong  flavor,  such  as  cabbage  and  onions. 

All  vegetables  lose  food  value  when  boiled  in  a 
large  quantity  of  water,  because  mineral  matter  and 
other  soluble  materials  are  dissolved  out  of  them. 

Steaming  is  a  better  way  of  cooking  vegetables, 
if  all  the  food  value  is  to  be  retained.  Mild- 
flavored  vegetables  taste  well  when  steamed,  or 
when  boiled  in  just  enough  water  to  keep  them  from 
burning.  The  strong-flavored  vegetables  are  of  better 
flavor  when  cooked  in  a  quantity  of  water,  and  this 
method  is  most  common,  even  though  the  food  value 
is  lessened. 

The  starchy  vegetables  are  such  vegetables  as 
potatoes,  corn,  sweet  potatoes  and  parsnips;  also 
the  legumes  which  have  already  been  studied. 

Baking  is  an  excellent  method  for  cooking  vege- 
tables which  taste  well  when  prepared  in  that  way. 
Boiling  vegetables,  such  as  the  potato,  with  the  skin 
on,  prevents  the  loss  of  food  value. 

Vegetables  are  cooked  for  several  reasons :  (1)  to 
soften  the  cellulose,  (2)  to  change  or  improve  the 
flavor,  (3)  to  make  the  starch  easier  to  digest,  (4)  to 
vary  the  way  of  serving  them. 

Vegetables  are  often  cooked  for  too  long  a  time. 


108  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

This  spoils  the  flavor  and  perhaps  the  appearance, 
in  addition  to  causing  a  loss  of  food  value.  They 
should  be  cooked  until  tender  and  not  allowed  to 
stand  after  they  are  done.  Cabbage  is  a  vegetable 
usually  cooked  for  too  long  a  period,  in  which  case 
it  becomes  strong  in  flavor,  tough  and  very  different 
in  appearance. 

When  vegetables  are  purchased,  the  fresh  crisp  ones 
should  be  selected.  Withered  vegetables  are  not 
good  in  flavor  and  are  often  poor  in  texture.  Many 
vegetables,  such  as  corn,  green  peas  and  string  beans, 
retain  their  good  flavor  but  a  very  short  time  after 
being  gathered.  If  withered  vegetables  must  be 
used,  they  may  be  improved  by  long  soaking  in  cold 
water  before  cooking. 

When  selecting  vegetables,  the  following  points 
will  be  helpful : 

Green  beans  should  be  crisp,  and  the  pod  should 
snap  easily. 

Green  peas  should  have  a  green  pod,  the  seed 
tender  when  pressed  with  the  finger  nail,  and  the 
pods  well  filled. 

Green  corn  should  have  a  fresh  green  husk,  brown 
silk,  the  ears  well  filled,  and  the  grain  tender  and  full 
of  juice  when  pressed  with  the  finger  nail. 

Young  carrots  or  fresh  beets  should  be  firm  and 
have  tops  that  are  green  and  fresh. 

A  head  of  lettuce  should  be  solid  when  pressed, 
and  not  have  a  number  of  outer  leaves  that  must 
be  thrown  away.  Leaf  lettuce  should  be  fresh 
and  of  a  light  green  color,  without  old  and  coarse 
leaves. 

Celery  should  be  crisp,  tops  not  wilted,  and  outer 
stalks  neither  woody  nor  brown  in  color. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  109 

A  head  of  cabbage  should  be  solid  and  with  few 
leaves  that  cannot  be  used. 

Radishes  should  be  firm,  tops  not  wilted. 

Tomatoes  should  be  thoroughly  ripe,  smooth  and 
without  spots  that,  when  removed,  will  spoil  the 
shape  of  the  tomato. 

Many  vegetables  are  now  sold  by  the  pound,  and 
it  is  economy  to  buy  those  which  will  require  little 
waste  in  preparation. 

HOME   PROBLEMS   AND    QUESTIONS 

Make  a  list  of  all  the  vegetables  you  know. 
Divide  the  list  into  the  following  groups : 

1.  Those  that  may  be  baked. 

2.  Those  that  may  be  creamed. 

3.  Those  that  may  be  scalloped. 

Can  any  of  the  vegetables  be  put  in  more  than 
one  class? 

Make  a  list  of  the  green  vegetables,  and  one  of  the 
starchy  vegetables  commonly  used.  Use  Bulletin 
No.  28,  "The  Composition  of  American  Food  Ma- 
terials ",  obtained  from  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  to  find 
to  which  class  they  belong. 

What  is  the  price  by  the  pound  of  the  following : 
onions,  carrots,  turnips,  parsnips,  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes  ? 

What  is  the  price  by  the  can  of  peas,  tomatoes  and 
corn?  Does  the  price  vary  with  the  different 
brands?  Can  you  give  reasons  why  this  might  be? 
Read  the  label  on  a  can  of  vegetables.  What  is 
stated  on  the  label?  Why  should  one  read  the 
label? 


110  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Bring  to  class  one  or  two  good  recipes  for  prepar- 
ing vegetables  which  have  not  been  used  in  class. 
Let  every  member  of  the  class  copy  the  recipes  in 
the  class  notebook  if  they  are  approved. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
VEGETABLES 
BAKED    SQUASH 

Wash  the  outside  of  a  Hubbard  squash.  Cut  into  pieces 
about  three  inches  square,  or  into  any  shape  desired.  Re- 
move the  seeds.  Sprinkle  the  inside  of  each  piece  with  a 
little  salt,  pepper  and  sugar.  Place  on  shallow  pan  and 
bake  in  oven  until  squash  is  tender  and  slightly  browned 
on  top. 

SCALLOPED   CORN 

1  can  corn  1  tbsp.  butter 

1  pt.  milk  2  eggs 

\  tsp.  salt  1  tbsp.  sugar 

|  tsp.  pepper  Buttered  bread  crumbs 

Chopped  green  peppers,  if  desired 

Beat  the  eggs  slightly,  add  milk,  sugar,  salt  and  pepper : 
mix  thoroughly.  Add  the  corn.  Pour  the  mixture  into  a 
buttered  baking-dish,  add  the  butter  and  cover  top  with 
bread  crumbs.  Set  in  a  pan  of  water.  Bake  about  forty- 
five  minutes  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Would  less  time  be  required  if  this  were  baked  in  rame- 
kins? Why? 

CARROTS  AND   PEAS 

Wash  and  scrape  a  carrot.  Cut  into  dice,  place  in 
boiling  salted  water ;  boil  gently  until  the  carrot  is  easily 
pierced  with  a  fork.  Do  not  cover  the  saucepan,  and  use 
as  little  water  as  possible.  When  the  carrot  is  done, 
drain  it  from  the  water;  add  it  to  an  equal  quantity 
of  drained  canned  or  fresh  peas  which  are  hot.  Pour 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  111 

melted  butter  over  them;  sprinkle  with  pepper.  Serve 
in  a  warm  vegetable-dish. 

Instead  of  serving  them  in  this  manner,  after  combining 
the  two  vegetables,  add  half  as  much  of  No.  2  White  Sauce 
as  there  is  of  vegetables.  Re-heat  and  serve  in  bread 
boxes.  Bread  boxes  are  made  by  taking  a  piece  of  bread 
about  three  inches  square  and  two  inches  high  and  hollow- 
ing it  out  to  make  a  box.  Then  butter  outside  of  box, 
place  on  pan,  and  toast  in  oven.  Use  while  warm. 

These  bread  boxes  are  used  simply  to  vary  the  manner  of 
serving  a  food.  Creamed  oysters,  creamed  meats  and 
other  creamed  vegetables  are  also  served  in  bread  boxes. 

How  may  the  bread  which  you  removed  from  the  center 
of  the  box  be  used? 

CREAMED   ONIONS 

Peel  an  onion,  wash  and  place  in  boiling  salted  water 
to  cook.  Do  not  cover  pan.  The  onion  is  done  when  it 
can  be  pierced  easily  with  a  fork.  Drain  onion  and  add 
No.  2  White  Sauce.  Re-heat.  Serve  in  a  warmed  dish. 


THE  POTATO 

Potatoes  are  used  as  food  in  greater  amount  than 
any  other  vegetable.  If  all  the  potatoes  grown, 
minus  those  used  in  other  ways  than  human  food, 
were  equally  divided  among  the  people  of  the  world, 
it  would  give  every  person  about  four  bushels  a  year. 

The  potato  is  a  native  of  America  and  probably 
was  first  found  in  Chile.  It  was  first  grown  in 
Europe  in  or  about  1585.  In  Ireland  the  potato  is 
one  of  the  chief  foods  of  the  people,  and  for  that 
reason  the  white  potato  is  called  the  Irish  potato. 

The  botanist  calls  the  potato  a  tuber,  that  is,  an 
underground  stem  which  has  thickened  and  become 
a  storehouse  for  food  to  be  used  by  the  new  plants. 


112  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

When  the  chemist  examines  the  potato,  he  finds 
that  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  starch,  a  little 
protein,  some  mineral  matter  and  a  large  per  cent 
of  water.  The  potato  is  particularly  valuable  for 
its  starch,  and  is  therefore  mainly  a  heat  and  energy- 
producing  food. 

The  method  used  in  cooking  potatoes  has  much  to 
do  with  the  food  value.  Baking  or  boiling  "in  their 
jackets "  saves  the  food  value.  Peeling  and  then 
boiling  causes  some  loss  of  the  mineral  matter  and 
protein,  since  these  foodstuffs  are  found  just  under 
the  skin  of  the  potato  and  may  be  lost  when  it  is 
pared,  unless  very  thin  peelings  are  removed. 

Potatoes,  to  be  cooked,  should  be  put  in  boiling 
water,  not  in  cold,  as  soaking  peeled  potatoes  in 
cold  water  draws  out  the  starch  and  also  causes  a 
loss  of  protein  and  mineral  matter.  Potatoes  should 
never  soak  in  cold  water  after  they  are  peeled,  if 
all  of  the  food  value  is  to  be  saved.  If  they  are  old 
and  withered,  they  should  be  freshened  by  soaking 
before  the  skin  is  removed.  Potatoes  should  be 
removed  from  the  boiling  water  as  soon  as  they  are 
done.  Baked  potatoes,  when  done,  should  have  the 
skin  broken  or  pierced  with  a  fork  to  allow  the  escape 
of  the  steam,  which  would  cause  the  potato  to  be 
soggy. 

New  potatoes  are  those  sold  immediately  after 
they  are  harvested.  Old  potatoes  are  those  that 
have  been  stored  before  being  put  on  the  market. 
In  the  spring  old  potatoes  may  sprout,  which  indi- 
cates that  a  new  plant  is  beginning  to  grow  from  the 
"eye"  of  the  potato.  This  hurts  the  quality  of  the 
potato  for  cooking.  Potatoes  that  have  been  frozen 
are  sweet,  poor  in  flavor,  and  not  mealy. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  113 

When  buying  potatoes,  choose  those  of  fairly 
uniform  size,  having  smooth  skins  and  free  from 
scab.  Potatoes  are  sold  by  the  measure  or  by  weight, 
the  latter  custom  being  much  more  common  than 
formerly. 

Sweet  potatoes  are  very  much  like  Irish  potatoes 
in  food  value,  except  that  they  contain  sugar  which 
gives  them  their  sweet  taste.  Sweet  potatoes  are 
grown  and  used  more  in  the  South  than  in  the 
Northern  States. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

POTATOES 
BAKED    STUFFED    POTATOES 

Scrub  with  a  brush,  in  cold  water,  a  medium-sized,  well 
shaped  potato.  Cut  off  a  strip  of  peel  one  half  inch  wide 
around  the  middle  of  the  potato.  Place  the  potato  on  a 
rack  in  a  hot  oven.  A  medium-sized  potato  needs  to  bake 
about  forty-five  minutes.  Test  by  piercing  with  a  fork 
or  pressing  firmly  between  the  fingers ;  it  should  feel  soft 
if  done. 

Cut  the  potato  into  halves  at  the  peeled  strip,  remove 
the  inside  carefully  from  the  shells,  mash,  add  salt,  butter 
and  cream,  or  milk,  using  about  one  teaspoon  butter  and 
one  tablespoon  milk  for  each  potato.  Beat  well.  Refill 
the  shell  with  the  mashed  potato ;  do  not  press  down,  but 
fill  lightly.  Place  on  pan  and  set  in  a  hot  oven  to  brown 
the  top  slightly. 

CANDIED    SWEET  POTATO 

Scrub  sweet  potatoes  and  place  in  boiling  water,  cook 
until  partly  done,  peel  and  place  in  a  shallow  baking-dish. 
Make  a  syrup  by  boiling  together  equal  parts  of  sugar  and 
water ;  pour  this  over  the  potatoes,  sprinkle  with  salt  and 
bits  of  butter.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven  until  the  potatoes  are 
done  and  slightly  brown. 


114  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

FRENCH   FRIED    POTATOES 

Wash  and  peel  small  potatoes,  cut  in  eighths  length- 
wise ;  soak  thirty  minutes  in  cold  water  to  make  very 
crisp.  Take  from  water  and  dry  between  towels.  Fry 
in  a  frying-basket  in  deep  fat.  Drain  on  brown  paper 
and  sprinkle  with  salt. 

Test  the  fat  with  a  small  cube  of  bread.  If  bread  browns 
in  one  minute,  the  fat  is  the  right  temperature  for  frying 
potatoes. 

Should  the  fat  be  as  hot  as  when  frying  the  croquettes 
made  in  a  previous  lesson  ?  Why  ? 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  are  vegetables  important  in  the  diet? 

2.  Into  what  two  groups  may  vegetables  be  divided  ?    Name 
examples  of  each. 

3.  How  should  highly  flavored  vegetables  be  cooked  ? 

4.  Why  are  vegetables  cooked  ? 

5.  How  should  mild-flavored  vegetables  be  cooked  ? 

6.  Give  the  points  to  be  observed  in  selecting  the  following : 
head  lettuce,  leaf  lettuce,  celery,  cabbage,  tomatoes,  green  corn 
and  green  peas. 

7.  What  foodstuffs  are  found  in  a  potato  ? 

8.  Should  peeled  potatoes  be  soaked ?    Why? 

9.  In  cooking  potatoes  which  are  the  best  methods  to  use? 
Why? 

10.  How  may  baked  potatoes  be  kept  from  becoming  soggy? 

11.  What  are  "new  potatoes"?  "old  potatoes"? 

12.  How  do  sweet  potatoes  differ  from  Irish  potatoes? 

13.  Is    "French   fried"    an   economical   way   of   preparing 
potatoes?    Why? 


OTHER  STARCHY  FOODS 

RICE 

Rice  is  a  food  sometimes  used  in  a  meal  in  place 
of  potatoes.    Rice  and  potatoes  should  not  be  used 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  115 

in  the  same  meal  because  both  are  starchy  foods,  of 
like  appearance,  and  without  much  flavor.  If  a  rice 
pudding  is  to  be  served  as  dessert,  then  green  vege- 
tables are  best  to  use  in  the  main  course  of  the  meal. 

Most  of  the  rice  used  in  the  United  States  comes 
from  the  Southern  States,  where  the  growing  of  rice 
is  becoming  a  much  more  important  industry  than 
formerly. 

Rice  is  sold  in  the  market  in  two  forms,  (1)  pol- 
ished, and  (2)  unpolished  or  brown  rice.  In  prepar- 
ing rice  for  the  market,  the  outer  husk  of  the  seed 
is  removed.  The  rice  then  appears  brownish  in 
color  and  is  called  brown  or  unpolished  rice.  To 
remove  this  brown  coating,  the  grains  are  polished. 
It  is  then  sold  as  "polished  rice"  and  is  white  in 
color.  The  brownish  coating  on  the  rice  contains 
mineral  matter  and  vit amines.  When  it  is  removed 
valuable  food  material  is  lost.  The  brown  rice 
has  a  good  flavor  but  does  not  sell  so  well  as  the 
polished  rice  because  of  its  appearance.  It  is 
cheaper  than  the  polished  rice.  When  buying  the 
"  best "  rice,  one  should  see  that  the  grains  are  uni- 
form in  size  and  unbroken. 


MACARONI,    SPAGHETTI,   VERMICELLI 

Macaroni  is  a  product  made  by  mixing  flour  with 
water  to  form  a  stiff  dough  which  is  then  forced 
through  metallic  plates  that  have  small  round 
perforations  with  the  center  of  the  hole  filled,  thus 
making  long  hollow  tubes  of  dough.  When  the 
dough  tubes  have  been  dried  in  ovens  they  are 
packed  for  market.  Macaroni  is  sold  in  packages 
that  contain  pieces  cut  the  length  of  the  package, 


116  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

packed  closely  side  by  side,  or  pieces  cut  about  two 
or  three  inches  long. 

Spaghetti  is  another  form  in  which  this  paste  is 
sold,  but  for  this  the  tubes  are  made  smaller  than 
for  macaroni.  Vermicelli  is  still  another  form  of  this 
paste,  sometimes  rolled  and  cut  in  fancy  shapes,  such 
as  the  alphabet. 

Macaroni  and  spaghetti  are  served  as  a  substitute 
for  starchy  vegetables,  and  when  either  is  used,  such 
foods  as  potatoes,  rice,  corn,  or  beans  should  be 
omitted  from  the  meal.  Vermicelli  is  used  in  soups. 

Any  of  these  products  need  highly  seasoned  foods, 
such  as  tomatoes  or  cheese,  either  cooked  or  served 
with  them.  To  taste  best,  they  require  fat  added. 

HOMINY 

Hominy  is  a  product  made  from  corn  by  removing 
the  hard  outside  layers  of  the  kernel.  It  may  be 
sold  in  this  form,  or  the  grains  may  be  broken  into 
small  pieces,  when  it  is  called  grits,  —  or  the  pieces 
may  be  steamed  and  rolled,  when  it  is  known  as 
flaked  hominy.  Hominy  is  a  starchy  food  often 
used  in  a  meal  in  place  of  potatoes,  and  is  very 
good  when  well  cooked. 

CORNSTARCH 

Cornstarch  is  also  a  product  made  from  corn,  and 
is  used  as  a  thickening  agent.  It  is  a  fine  white 
powder  and  is  sold  in  packages. 

TAPIOCA 

Tapioca  is  a  product  made  from  the  root  of  the 
cassava  plant  which  grows  in  South  America.  It 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  117 

is  almost  pure  starch,  and  is  prepared  from  the  root 
by  grating,  washing  and  separating  the  starch,  after 
which  it  is  dried  on  metal  plates.  Tapioca  is  sold 
in  two  forms,  (1)  pearl  tapioca,  which  is  usually 
soaked  several  hours  before  cooking,  and  (2)  granu- 
lated or  minute  tapioca,  which  need  not  be  soaked. 
Tapioca  is  used  mainly  in  making  puddings. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
STARCHY   FOODS 

Experiments :  1.  Starch  turns  to  a  blue  color  whenever 
tincture  of  iodine  is  added  to  it.  Place  a  drop  of  iodine 
on  each  of  the  following :  a  slice  of  potato,  rice,  tapioca, 
cream  of  wheat,  flour,  sugar,  egg,  meat.  Which  contains 
starch? 

2.  Place  one  half   teaspoon  of   cornstarch  in   two 
tablespoons  of  cold  water  in  a  glass  or  test  tube.     Mix 
together  well.     Has  the  liquid  changed  in  appearance? 
Let  this  stand  for  fifteen  minutes.     What  has  hap- 
pened ?     Is  the  starch  dissolved  in  the  cold  water  ? 

3.  Try  the  same  experiment,  using  sugar  instead  of 
starch.     Is  the  result  the  same ?     Why? 

4.  Pour  one  half  cup  boiling  water  directly  on  one 
tablespoon  cornstarch,  stir,  boil  one  minute.     Is  the 
mixture  smooth  ?     Examine  the  inside  of  a  lump.     Is 
it  like  the  uncooked  starch  ? 

5.  Mix  one  half  teaspoon  cornstarch  with  two  table- 
spoons cold  water.     Heat  slowly,  boil  one  minute.     Is 
the  mixture  smooth  ?     Can  you  explain  why  ? 

6.  Try  the  same  experiment,  mixing  the  cornstarch 
with  an  equal  amount  of  sugar,  then  add  boiling  water. 
What  is  the  result? 

7.  Try  mixing  one  tablespoon  cornstarch  with  one 
half  teaspoon  fat  and  stirring  into  boiling  water.     What 
is  the  result? 


118  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

The  results  would  have  been  the  same  if  you  had  used 
flour  instead  of  cornstarch.  The  starch  grains  must  be 
thoroughly  separated  before  cooking,  so  that  each  starch 
grain  may  cook  thoroughly.  From  these  experiments 
determine  the  best  method  for  making  blanc  mange. 

BLANC  MANGE 

2  c.  milk  2  tsp.  vanilla 
£  c.  cornstarch  i  tsp.  salt 

\  c.  sugar  Nutmeg 

The  pudding  should  be  cooked  thirty  minutes  in  a  double- 
boiler.  Pour  into  a  mold  that  has  been  wet  with  cold 
water.  When  cold  and  "  set ",  remove  from  mold  and 
serve  with  fruit  juice,  or  maple  syrup,  or  cream. 

MACARONI  AND   CHEESE 

Break  macaroni  into  short  pieces.  Rinse  and  add  to 
boiling  salted  water.  Use  about  one  fourth  cup  of 
macaroni  with  one  pint  of  boiling  water  and  one  half 
teaspoon  salt.  Boil  gently  until  macaroni  is  tender. 
Drain  off  water,  pour  cold  water  over  macaroni  and  drain 
at  once ;  this  prevents  the  pieces  sticking  together. 

In  the  bottom  of  a  buttered  baking-dish  place  a  layer 
of  well  seasoned  No.  2  White  Sauce  made  with  milk,  then 
a  layer  of  macaroni,  then  a  layer  of  grated  cheese,  then  one 
of  white  sauce,  —  continuing  until  the  dish  is  almost 
filled.  Place  a  layer  of  buttered  bread  crumbs  on  top. 
Bake  slowly  thirty  to  forty  minutes. 

RICE  AS  A  VEGETABLE 

3  c.  water  1  c.  rice  1  tsp.  salt 

Place  rice  in  wire  strainer  and  wash  by  running  water 
through  the  rice.  Place  water  in  top  part  of  a  double- 
boiler  over  direct  heat  and  bring  to  boiling-point;  add 
the  rice  and  salt.  Place  over  boiling  water  and  cook  until 
the  rice  is  tender.  Serve. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  119 

Rice  may  be  cooked  in  a  steamer  if  desired.  It  is  also 
cooked  in  boiling  water  over  direct  heat,  using  eight  cups 
of  water  to  one  cup  of  rice.  Why  is  more  water  needed? 
Which  method  would  be  best  to  use  when  all  the  food  value 
is  to  be  retained? 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  do  you  know  about  the  growing  of  rice? 

2.  In  what  forms  is  rice  sold?    Which  has  the  most  food 
value  ?    Which  is  better  in  appearance  ? 

3.  What  is  the  price  of  polished  rice  per  pound?    of  un- 
polished rice? 

4.  How  is  macaroni  made?    What  nation  eats  a  great  deal 
of  macaroni  ? 

5.  What  is  spaghetti ?  vermicelli? 

6.  How  is  hominy  made  ? 

7.  What  are  hominy  grits?  hominy  flakes? 

8.  What  food  may  hominy  replace  in  a  meal? 

9.  In   what   kind   of  package   is  cornstarch  usually  sold? 
What  is  the  price? 

10.  What  is  tapioca? 

11.  In  what  two  forms  may  tapioca  be  purchased? 

12.  Which  is  the  easier  to  use  ? 


MEAT 

The  flesh  of  animals  is  called  meat.  The  principal 
kinds  used  in  the  United  States  are  beef,  veal, 
mutton,  lamb  and  pork. 

The  slaughtering  and  packing  of  meat  is  one  of  the 
most  important  industries  in  the  United  States  and 
is  one  that  is  governed  by  many  federal  and  State 
laws.  These  are  necessary,  because  meat  used  as 
food  must  be  clean  and  free  from  harmful  bacteria, 
as  well  as  from  parasites,  which  are  tiny  living  crea- 
tures in  the  flesh  of  unhealthy  animals. 

Clean  meat  is  that  from  animals  free  from  disease, 


120  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

slaughtered  under  sanitary  conditions,  and  kept  in 
a  cold  place  away  from  flies,  dust  and  other  dirt 
until  sold  to  the  housekeeper.  The  large  packing 
firms  have  their  plants  well  equipped  to  carry  on 
this  work  according  to  law.  Some  of  the  small 
slaughterhouses  used  by  butchers  are  not  clean  and 
are  not  good  places  for  handling  meat. 

The  meat  market  or  shop  must  be  kept  clean, 
and  the  men  handling  the  meat  must  wear  clean 
clothes  and  have  clean  hands  if  the  meat  is  to  be 
kept  in  good  condition.  As  soon  as  fresh  meat 
comes  from  the  market  the  paper  wrapping  should 
be  removed  and  the  meat  put  in  a  cool  place,  away 
from  flies  and  dust. 

In  order  to  thoroughly  understand  what  cooking 
does  to  meat,  one  must  understand  its  structure. 
Meat  is  composed  of  muscle  fibers  held  together  by 
connective  tissue.  Each  fiber  is  composed  of 
bundles  of  tiny  tubes  filled  with  muscle  juice  com- 
posed of  water  in  which  are  protein,  mineral  matter, 
coloring  matter  and  extractives.  The  extractives 
give  the  flavor  to  meat.  In  between  the  muscles, 
and  surrounding  the  tubes,  are  the  particles  or 
globules  of  fat. 

When  meat  is  cooked  the  connective  tissue  is 
softened,  the  flavor  is  improved  and  changes  take 
place  in  the  muscle  juice.  Meat  is  either  tender  or 
tough,  depending  upon  the  age  of  the  animal  and 
the  part  of  the  carcass  from  which  it  comes.  The 
tough  portions  come  from  the  much  exercised  sections 
of  the  animal's  body.  The  tough  cuts  usually 
have  more  flavor,  contain  as  much  food  value,  and 
when  well  cooked  are  as  pleasant  to  the  taste  as 
the  tender  cuts.  The  tough  cuts  cost  less  than  the 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  121 

tender  because  there  are  fewer  tender  cuts  in  the 
animal  carcass. 

Tender  cuts  of  meat  can  be  cooked  successfully 
in  dry  heat  by  (1)  broiling,  (2)  pan-broiling  and 
(3)  roasting.  The  tough  cuts  are  best  when  cooked 
in  moist  heat  by  (1)  stewing,  (2)  braising  and  (3) 
pot-roasting. 

When  selecting  meat  at  the  market  it  is  important 
to  know  the  names  of  the  several  cuts  and  also  the 
part  of  the  animal  carcass  from  which  the  cuts  are 
taken,  in  order  to  decide  which  method  is  best  to 
use  in  cooking  them. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
MEATS  —  TENDER   CUTS 

Experiments :  1.  Take  a  small  piece  of  tough  lean  meat 
and  scrape  with  the  dull  edge  of  the  knife,  scraping 
both  sides  until  nothing  remains  but  the  stringy  mass 
or  framework  of  the  meat.  Of  what  is  this  framework 
made? 

2.  Place  the  stringy  mass  in  a  frying-pan  and  heat 
for  a  few  minutes.     What  is  the  result  ? 

3.  Pour  a  little  water  in  the  frying-pan,  cover  pan 
and  simmer  slowly  for  twenty  minutes.     What  effect 
has  the  moist  heat  had  on  the  stringy  mass  ? 

What  would  be  the  best  methods  to  use  in  cooking 
tough  meats?     Why? 

4.  Place  one  cube  of  meat  in  a  small  amount  of  cold 
water  and  let  boil  three  minutes.     Place  another  cube 
of  meat  in  a  small  amount  of  boiling  water  and  boil 
three   minutes.     Examine    the   liquid   on   both.     Do 
they  differ  ?     Why  ?     Which  method  would  you  use  for 
making  soup?    Which  when  the  meat  itself  is  to  be 
used?    Why? 


122  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

PAN-BROILED    STEAK 

Wipe  steak  with  a  damp  cloth.  Have  frying-pan  very 
hot.  Rub  a  little  fat  over  the  bottom  of  the  frying-pan. 
Place  the  steak  in  the  frying-pan,  sear  on  one  side,  then 
on  the  other;  turn  very  often  and  cook  until  done  ac- 
cording to  taste.  Place  on  warmed  platter,  sprinkle  with 
salt  and  pepper,  and  with  bits  of  butter  if  desired. 

A  steak  for  broiling  should  be  at  least  one  inch  thick. 
To  cook  a  steak  of  this  thickness  to  a  medium  degree  re- 
quires about  fifteen  minutes. 

Lamb  chops,  mutton  chops,  or  pork  chops  may  be  broiled 
in  the  same  way. 

A  broiler  may  be  used  instead  of  the  frying-pan  if  there 
is  one  available. 

BOAST  OF  BEEF 

Wipe  the  roast  with  a  damp  cloth.  Place  in  a  roasting- 
pan  in  a  very  hot  oven.  Roast  ten  minutes,  or  until  the 
meat  is  seared.  Dredge  the  roast  with  salt,  pepper  and  a 
little  flour.  Reduce  heat  in  the  oven  and  continue  roast- 
ing until  done  according  to  taste  ;  about  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes  must  be  allowed  for  each  pound  to  cook  to  a 
medium  degree.  A  little  water  may  be  added  which 
may  be  used  for  basting  the  meat.  A  large  roast  is 
always  more  juicy  than  a  small  one,  —  four  or  five  pounds 
is  as  small  a  roast  as  should  be  used  to  obtain  good  results. 

Meat  may  be  roasted  in  the  fireless  cooker,  if  desired. 

CASSEROLE   OF  BEEF 

2  c.  left-over  cooked  beef  ^  c.  canned  tomatoes 

1  c.  gravy  £  onion,  thinly  sliced 

£  c.  celery  cut  in  small  pieces  j  tsp.  salt 

|  c.  carrot  cut  in  small  cubes  -^  tsp.  pepper 
1  c.  potato  cubes 

Mix  together  and  place  in  a  casserole ;  cover.  Bake 
slowly  one  hour.  Serve  from  casserole. 


FOODS   AND   COOKERY  123 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  principal  kinds  of  meat  used  in  the  United 
States? 

2.  Why  must  meat  be  kept  clean? 

3.  What  is  clean  meat? 

4.  Describe  the  structure  of  meat. 

5.  What  are  the  foodstuffs  found  in  meat? 

6.  What  is  the  chief  value  of  meat  as  food  ? 

7.  What  changes  take  place  in  meat  when  it  is  cooked  ? 

8.  What  makes  meat  tough? 

9.  From  what  parts  of  the  animal  are  the  tough  cuts  ob- 
tained? 

10.  How  may  tender  cuts  be  cooked?    How  should  tough 
cuts  be  cooked  ? 

11.  Make  a  plan  for  dinner  in  which  casserole  of  beef  might 
be  correctly  served ;  roast  beef ;  broiled  steak. 

12.  What  other  meats  might  be  used  in  place  of  the  beef  in 
the  casserole  of  beef  ? 


MEAT    (Continued) 

BEEF 

After  beef  is  butchered,  the  carcass  is  first  split 
lengthwise  into  two  sides  of  beef,  then  each  side  is 
divided  crosswise  into  the  fore  quarter  and  the  hind 
quarter.  The  quarters  are  divided  into  the  "  cuts  "  or 
pieces  as  we  buy  them  in  the  meat-shop.  Different 
butchers  make  these  cuts  in  slightly  different  ways, 
but  in  general  they  are  the  same. 

By  looking  at  the  chart  showing  the  cuts  of  beef 
one  can  learn  to  what  section  the  various  cuts  be- 
long. 

The  following  are  the  usual  methods  of  cooking  the 
most  common  cuts : 

Roasting :  rib,  loin,  round,  chuck. 

Pot-roasting :  chuck,  rump. 


124 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  125 

Broiling :  porterhouse,  Delmonico  or  club  steak, 
sirloin,  T-bone  steak. 

Soup-making :  neck,  brisket,  leg. 

Braising :  flank,  chuck. 

The  fireless  cooker  is  very  useful  in  cooking  tough 
meats,  because  they  need  long  slow  cooking  if  they 
are  to  be  tender  and  juicy.  Heat  coagulates  or 
"sets"  the  protein  in  the  muscle  tubes,  and  when 


Copyright.  1915,  by  E.  C.  Bridoman. 
AMERICAN  MEAT-CUTTING  CHART  —  VEAL 

the  meat  is  cooked  at  a  high  temperature  the  protein 
becomes  tough,  just  as  the  egg-white  does  when  an 
egg  is  boiled. 

When  meat  is  cooked,  the  object  sought  is  to 
coagulate  quickly  the  muscle  juice  in  the  ends  of 
the  tubes  so  that  they  are  closed  and  no  juice  can 
escape;  this  process  is  called  searing.  Meat  is 
seared,  either  by  plunging  it  into  boiling  water,  by 
placing  it  in  a  very  hot  oven,  over  hot  coals,  or  in  a 


126  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

very  hot  frying-pan.  After  the  meat  is  seared,  the 
temperature  should  be  lowered  and  the  meat  cooked 
slowly.  When  broiling  meat,  keep  the  fire  very 
hot  and  turn  the  meat  every  two  or  three  minutes, 
in  order  to  keep  the  meat  at  the  proper  heat. 

Veal  is  meat  from  a  calf  about  two  months  old. 

Mutton  is  meat  from  a  sheep  about  two  years 
old. 

Lamb  is  meat  from  a  sheep  less  than  one  year  old. 


Copyright,  191 5,  by  E.  C.  Bridgman. 
AMERICAN  MEAT-CUTTING  CHART  —  LAMB 

Spring  Lamb  is  from  a  sheep  eight  weeks  to  three 
months  old. 

Pork  is  meat  from  the  hog,  and  is  used  in  great 
quantities.  The  cuts  are  shown  on  the  chart. 
Bacon  and  ham  are  very  generally  used  because  they 
are  both  "cured"  and  can  be  shipped  and  easily 
kept. 

Leaf  lard  is  made  from  leaf  fat  (layers  of  pork  fat), 
and  is  the  best  quality  of  lard. 


•>• 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


127 


Sausage  is  made  of  ground  pork  scraps,  or  trim- 
mings; it  is  sold  in  bulk,  or  is  stuffed  in  casings 
which  are  made  of  the  treated  skin  of  the  intestines 
of  the  hog. 

Meat  contains  such  a  large  amount  of  protein 
that  it  is  considered  an  important  food  for  body- 
building. We  do  not  need  to  eat  as  much  meat  as 
we  usually  do,  because  other  foods  can  supply  the 


CopyrlgU,  1915,  bv  E.  C.  Bridgman. 
AMERICAN  MEAT-CUTTING  CHART  —  PORK 

necessary  protein.  There  is  probably  no  person 
who  needs  meat  three  times  a  day.  When  meats 
are  expensive,  well  balanced  meals  may  be  planned 
without  the  use  of  much  meat. 


HOME   PROBLEMS  AND   QUESTIONS 

What  is  the  price  per  pound  of  the  following : 
round  steak,  rump-beef  roast,  chuck-beef  roast, 
porterhouse  steak,  a  whole  ham,  slice  of  ham,  side 
of  bacon,  sliced  bacon,  mutton  chops,  veal  steak, 
rib-pork  roast  ? 


128  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

Is  there  a  slaughterhouse  in  the  neighborhood  ? 

Where  are  the  large  packing  plants  from  which 
the  local  butcher  buys  meat?  What  firms  manage 
the  largest  packing  plants  in  the  world  ? 

See  if  you  can  find  the  government  inspection 
stamp  on  any  of  the  meat  which  is  used  in  your 
home.  What  does  this  indicate? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
MEATS  —  TOUGH   CUTS 

SWISS   STEAK 

Place  on  a  meat-board  a  piece  of  steak  one  inch  thick 
cut  from  the  round.  Wipe  the  meat  with  a  damp  cloth, 
and  pound  flour  into  it,  using  the  dull  edge  of  a  heavy 
saucer  or  small  plate  to  pound  with.  Pound  on  both  sides 
thoroughly.  The  pounding  breaks  apart  the  muscle  of 
the  meat,  and  helps  to  make  it  tender. 

Have  a  frying-pan  hot ;  in  this  place  some  fat  and  when 
it  is  melted  place  the  meat  in  the  pan.  Brown  the  meat 
on  both  sides,  and  sprinkle  it  with  salt  and  pepper.  Add 
boiling  water  to  half  cover  the  meat.  Tomato  juice  may 
be  used  instead,  if  desired.  Chop  onion,  green  peppers 
and  carrots,  and  place  over  and  around  the  meat.  Cover 
and  place  in  slow  oven  or  fireless  cooker.  Cook  until  the 
meat  is  tender. 

POT  BOAST 

Use  a  piece  of  rump  for  this.  Wipe  the  meat  with  a 
damp  cloth,  and  brown  it  in  hot  fat  in  the  frying-pan. 
Place  in  a  kettle,  add  boiling  water  until  the  meat  is  half 
covered.  Diced  carrots,  turnips,  onions,  or  celery  may 
be  added  if  desired.  Place  in  a  fireless  cooker,  or  simmer 
gently  on  the  stove  until  the  meat  is  tender.  For  gravy, 
the  water  in  which  the  meat  is  cooked  may  be  thickened 
or  served  as  it  is. 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  129 

BEEF   STEW 

1  lb.  beef  (tough  cut)  1  carrot 

2  potatoes  \  onion 

Flour  Salt  and  pepper 

Cut  beef  in  one-inch  pieces,  dredge  with  flour.  Brown 
the  onion,  and  then  the  meat,  in  hot  fat  in  a  frying-pan. 
If  there  is  fat  that  can  be  removed  from  the  meat,  this 
may  be  used  in  the  frying-pan.  Add  enough  boiling  water 
to  nearly  cover  the  meat.  Cook  until  the  meat  is  almost 
done,  then  add  the  diced  vegetables  and  cook  until  the 
vegetables  are  done.  The  liquid  may  be  thickened  before 
serving,  if  desired.  If  the  stew  is  placed  in  the  fireless 
cooker  the  vegetables  may  be  added  at  first,  since  it  is  not 
desirable  to  open  the  cooker  before  the  meat  is  done. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  "side  of  beef"?  a   "quarter  of  beef"?   a  "cut 
of  beef"? 

2.  Name  some  cuts  of  meat  coming  from  the  fore  quarter  of 
beef ;  from  the  hind  quarter. 

3.  What  cuts  of  beef  should  be  used  for  broiling?   for  pot- 
roasting?  for  roasting?  for  braising? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "searing"?    How  is  meat  seared ? 

5.  What  is  meant  when  the  recipe  says  "dredge"  the  meat 
with  flour? 

6.  What  is  veal?  mutton?  lamb?  pork? 

7.  What  is  "leaf  lard"? 

8.  How  is  sausage  made? 

9.  Do  we  need  to  eat  meat  three  times  a  day? 

10.  What  foods  can  sometimes  be  substituted  for  meat  in 
the  diet? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

SERVE   A  DINNER 

Suggested  Menu :  Broiled  pork  chops 

Baked  stuffed  potatoes 
Creamed  onions 
Baking-powder  biscuit 
Banana  salad 


130  FOODS   AND   COOKERY 

Estimate  the  cost  of  the  meal. 
Discuss  order  of  work. 
What  dishes  will  be  used? 


SOUPS 

When  meat,  bone  and  gristle  are  boiled  in  water, 
the  liquid  that  remains  after  the  boiling  is  called 
stock.  This  is  used  in  making  soup. 

When  stock  stands,  it  sometimes  forms  a  jelly- 
like  mass  that  is  called  gelatine.  This  gelatine  is 
formed  from  the  connective  tissue  which  is  present 
in  the  meat,  bones  and  gristle,  and  which  is  soluble 
in  hot  water. 

Commercial  gelatine  is  usually  sold  in  small  pack- 
ages. It  is  made  from  the  skin,  ligaments  and  bones 
of  animals,  and  is  largely  used  in  making  desserts 
and  salads.  Gelatine  is  a  form  of  protein,  and  has 
some  food  value. 

When  meat  is  prepared  for  making  soups,  it  is  cut 
into  small  pieces  and  put  into  cold  water  to  allow 
the  juice  to  soak  out  of  the  muscle  tubes  as  much 
as  it  will.  The  extractives  are  also  drawn  out  of 
the  meat  by  the  water. 

Meat  stock  alone  contains  very  little  food  value, 
but  by  adding  milk,  vegetables,  or  bits  of  meat,  we 
make  it  much  more  valuable  as  a  food.  Soups  made 
from  plain  meat  stock  have  a  value,  however,  be- 
cause the  extractives  cause  the  digestive  juices  to 
become  more  active,  and  it  is  for  this  purpose 
that  clear  soups  are  served  at  the  beginning  of 
a  meal. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  131 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

SOUPS    AND    GELATINE 

SOUP   STOCK 

Soup  stock  may  be  made  from  fresh  meat,  bone  and 
gristle,  or  it  may  be  made  from  trimmings  and  left-over 
meats.  There  may  be  several  kinds  of  meat  cooked  to- 
gether to  make  the  stock.  Some  housekeepers  keep  a 
"  soup-kettle  "  in  which  scraps  of  meat,  bone  and  trim- 
mings are  placed.  When  there  is  enough  in  the  kettle, 
water  is  added  and  the  stock  made.  Meat  scraps  must 
not  be  kept  too  long,  however. 

Bouillon  is  the  cleared  stock  made  from  beef.  Consomm& 
is  the  cleared  stock  made  from  two  or  three  kinds  of 
meat. 

Soup  stock  is  used,  in  combination  with  other  liquids, 
in  soups  and  gravies,  or  with  vegetables  in  vegetable  soup. 
If  fresh  meats  are  used  in  making  stock,  the  meat  itself 
should  be  used  in  some  other  way,  because  it  contains 
about  as  much  protein  as  fresh  meat.  It  is  tasteless,  and 
must  be  well  seasoned  or  used  with  highly  flavored  vege- 
tables. This  meat  may  be  used  in  croquettes,  hash,  meat 
pies,  and  in  casserole  of  vegetables  and  meat. 

BEEP  STOCK 

2  Ib.  beef  2  qt.  cold  water 

1  tsp.  salt . 

Cut  the  meat  into  small  pieces ;  crack  the  bone  (let  the 
butcher  do  this  when  you  buy  fresh  meat) ;  pour  the 
water  over  this  and  let  stand  one  hour.  Simmer  for  three 
hours.  Strain  and  let  cool.  For  bouillon  remove  the 
fat  from  the  top  of  the  stock  and  strain  the  stock  through 
cheesecloth  ;  season  with  a  bay  leaf  or  cloves,  pepper  and 
salt,  and  re-heat.  Sometimes  egg-white  is  used  for  clear- 
ing bouillon,  using  white  and  shell.  How  could  this  be 
done? 


132  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

VEGETABLE    SOUP 

2  qt.  stock  1  carrot,  diced 

1  onion,  sliced  1  turnip,  diced 

1  stalk  of  celery  or  dried  celery  leaves         Salt  and  pepper 

Any  left-over  vegetables  may  be  used.     Barley,  maca- 
roni, or  rice  are  sometimes  added.     Add  the  vegetables 
to  the  stock.     Simmer  gently  until  vegetables  are  heated 
through  or  cooked. 
Experiments  :    1.   Examine  various  kinds  of  gelatine  that 

can  be  purchased  in  the  store.     How  do  they  differ? 

What  is  the  price  per  ounce  ? 

2.  Place  one  fourth  teaspoon  of  gelatine  in  one  table- 
spoon cold  water,  let  stand  five  minutes.     What  has 
happened  ?     Add  two  tablespoons  boiling  water.     Does 
the  gelatine  dissolve? 

3.  Add  two  tablespoons  of  boiling  water  to  one  fourth 
teaspoon    gelatine.     What    happens?     What    method 
should  be  used  in  making  gelatine  dishes  ? 

PERFECTION   SALAD 

\  c.  sugar  2  tbsp.  granulated  gelatine 

\  c.  cold  water  1  tsp.  salt 

\  c.  vinegar  2  c.  sliced  celery 

2  c.  boiling  water  1  c.  shredded  cabbage 

Juice  of  one  lemon  3  pimentos,  chopped 

Soak  the  gelatine  in  the  cold  water  for  a  few  minutes. 
Add  the  boiling  water  and  sugar.  Stir  until  all  the 
gelatine  and  sugar  are  dissolved.  Add  lemon  juice,  vinegar 
and  salt.  Let  cool  until  mixture  begins  to  "set",  then 
stir  in  vegetables.  Wet  the  inside  of  individual  molds 
with  cold  water.  Pour  in  gelatine  mixture.  Keep  in 
cold  place  until  "  set."  Remove  from  mold,  serve  on 
lettuce  with  mayonnaise  dressing. 

LEMON  JELLY 

1  tbsp.  granulated  gelatine  f  c.  sugar 

\  c.  cold  water  \\  c.  boiling  water 

J  c.  lemon  juice  f  tsp.  salt 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  133 

Follow  directions  for  mixing  given  under  Perfection 
Salad.  Pour  mixture  at  once  into  large  mold.  When  it  is 
cold  and  "  set ",  remove  from  mold  and  garnish  with 
whipped  cream. 

KEVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  "stock"? 

2.  Give  directions  for  making  "stock." 

3.  In  what  ways  is  meat  stock  used  ? 

4.  How  is  bouillon  prepared  ? 

5.  Of  what  value  in  the  diet  are  clear  soups  ? 

6.  Why  should  the  meat  left  from  stock  be  used  ? 

7.  In  what  ways  may  this  meat  be  used  ? 

8.  From  what  is  commercial  gelatine  made  ? 

9.  Why  should  the  vegetables  not  be  added  to  the  gelatine 
mixture  until  it  begins  to  "set"? 

10.  Make  a  plan  for  a  meal  in  which  it  would  be  proper  to 
serve  vegetable  soup. 

11.  Make  a  dinner  plan,  using  lemon  jelly  as  the  dessert. 

12.  Make  a  plan  for  a  meal  in  which  it  would  be  correct  to 
serve  Perfection  Salad. 


POULTRY,   GAME  AND  FISH 

Poultry  is  the  name  given  to  domestic  birds  suit- 
able for  food,  such  as  chicken,  turkey,  goose  and 
duck.  Game  is  the  name  given  to  wild  birds  and 
animals  that  are  hunted  for  food,  such  as  quail, 
partridges,  wild  ducks  and  geese.  Pigeons  and 
squabs  are  classed  as  game.  In  the  United  States 
game  has  become  very  scarce  and  is  little  used  for 
food. 

Chicken  is  used  more  than  any  other  kind  of 
poultry,  and  can  be  purchased  in  the  market  at 
any  season  of  the  year.  A  spring  chicken  is  a 
chicken  not  more  than  four  months  old.  A  broiler 
is  a  young  chicken  that  weighs  about  a  pound,  or  a 


134  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

pound  and  a  half.  In  selecting  chickens  in  the  mar- 
ket, it  is  necessary  to  know  how  to  tell  the  age.  A 
young  chicken  will  have  smooth  yellow  legs,  and 
the  end  of  the  breast  bone  will  be  soft  and  flexible, 
while  an  older  bird  has  scaly  legs  and  a  firm  breast 
bone.  In  a  dressed  bird,  a  large  number  of  small 
pinfeathers  indicates  that  it  is  young,  while  long 
hairs  in  place  of  pinfeathers  show  age  in  the  bird. 

The  breast  or  white  meat  of  chicken  is  especially 
tender  because  it  is  composed  of  short  fibers  with 
a  small  amount  of  connective  tissue  and  very  little 
fat.  Because  of  the  structure  of  the  meat  and  its 
low  percentage  of  fat,  white  meat  is  easily  digested, 
and  is  therefore  often  used  in  invalid  cookery. 

Poultry  and  game  are  much  like  meat  in  food 
value,  and  when  either  is  served  it  takes  the  place 
of  meat  in  the  meal. 

FISH 

The  flesh  of  fish  is  not  unlike  the  flesh  of  meat, 
and  can  be  used  as  a  meat  substitute. 

In  some  sections  of  this  country  fish  can  be 
obtained  fresh,  and  is  best  when  cooked  soon  after 
being  caught.  Fresh  fish  is  more  difficult  to  keep 
in  good  condition  than  meat,  and  is  therefore  not 
easily  shipped.  When  fresh  fish  can  be  purchased, 
it  should  be  used  often  to  vary  the  diet.  Many 
kinds  of  fish  are  canned,  dried,  salted  or  smoked, 
and  in  these  forms  are  found  in  every  local  market ; 
but  fresh  fish  is  not  easily  obtained  inland,  —  in 
many  cases  because  there  is  no  demand  for  it. 

Oysters  are  one  form  of  shellfish  used  as  food. 
The  oyster  is  protected  by  a  hard  shell  covering. 
This  shell  is  usually  removed  before  the  oyster  is 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  135 

sold  in  the  market.  The  name  "Blue  Point  ",  and 
other  special  names,  formerly  indicated  the  locality 
where  the  oysters  were  grown,  but  this  is  no  longer 
the  case. 

Oysters  stand  shipping  well,  and  are  sold  in  most 
localities  during  the  winter  months  at  least.  While 
oysters  have  little  food  value,  they  are  much  liked 
for  their  flavor. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
POULTRY   AND    FISH 

To  dress  a  chicken :  1 .  Remove  feathers  by  pulling  them 
out,  after  plunging  the  fowl  into  boiling  water  and  hold- 
ing it  there  for  a  moment  or  two.  Fowls  are  sometimes 
picked  without  scalding,  if  the  work  can  be  done  im- 
mediately after  they  are  killed. 

2.  Singe  the  plucked  fowl  by  holding  it  in  a  flame 
of  gas  or  burning  paper,  being  sure  that  all  parts  are 
exposed  during  the  process  so  that  all  hairs  are  removed. 

3.  Cut  off  the  head,  if  it  has  not  been  removed. 
The  neck  may  be  removed  by  pushing  back  the  skin 
and  cutting  it  off. 

4.  Remove   the   feet  by  cutting  and  breaking  the 
legs  at  the  joints. 

5.  Make  an  incision  one  inch  above  the  vent  and 
crosswise  between  the  legs.     Draw  out  the  intestines 
and  other  organs  carefully,   cutting  away  the   vent. 
Remove  from  the  mass  the  heart,  liver  and   gizzard, 
being  careful  not  to  break  the  gall  bladder  which  lies 
under  the  liver.     Cut  the  gall  bladder  away  carefully. 

6.  Remove  the  skin  from  around  the  gizzard ;  open 
the  gizzard  and  remove  the  inner  skin  and  contents. 

7.  Wash  the  liver,  gizzard  and  heart,  squeezing  the 
latter  to  remove  any  blood.     These  organs  are  known 
as  the  "  giblets." 


136  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

8.  The  crop  and  windpipe  may  be  removed  at  the 
neck.     Do  this  without  breaking  the  crop,  or  tearing 
the  skin  at  the  neck. 

9.  Remove  all  pinfeathers  with  a   sharp-pointed, 
small  knife.     Remove  the  oil  bag  from  the  tail. 

10.  Wash  the  chicken  well  in  cold  water,  both  inside 
and  out.     Dry  with  a  cloth.     The  fowl  is  now  ready 
to  be  used  for  baking. 

1 1 .  When  a  fowl  is  to  be  cut  into  pieces,  as  for  stewing, 
it  is  usually  convenient  to  remove  the  wings  and  legs 
before  removing  the  intestines  and  other  organs  from 
the  body. 

Poultry  should  always  be  allowed  to  stand  several 
hours  after  dressing  before  it  is  cooked. 

STEWED    CHICKEN 

Place  the  pieces  of  chicken  in  a  kettle  and  cover  with 
boiling  water ;  boil  a  few  minutes ;  then  add  one  table- 
spoon salt,  and  cook  slowly  until  the  meat  is  tender  when 
pierced  with  a  fork.  Remove  chicken  to  a  warm  platter 
and  set  in  a  warm  place.  Add  milk  to  the  liquid  in  which 
the  chicken  was  cooked.  Thicken  with  flour,  and  cook 
for  five  minutes.  Pour  over  chicken  and  serve. 

Dumplings  may  be  served  with  the  stewed  chicken  if 
desired.  These  are  cooked  by  placing  them  on  top  of  the 
pieces  of  chicken  in  the  kettle,  keeping  the  dough  out  of 
the  water  as  far  as  possible.  Cover  the  kettle  tightly. 
Cook  twenty  minutes.  Remove  dumplings  and  chicken ; 
thicken  gravy  and  serve.  Dumplings  of  this  kind  are 
made  like  baking-powder  biscuits,  except  that  the  dough 
is  not  so  stiff. 

SCALLOPED   OYSTERS 

1  pt.  oysters  4  tbsp.  butter 

3  c.  bread  crumbs  or  Milk 

2£  c.  cracker  crumbs  £  tsp.  pepper 
|  tsp.  salt 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  137 

Look  over  the  oysters  carefully,  removing  any  bits  of 
shell  or  other  refuse.  Drain  the  liquor  from  the  oysters 
by  straining  it  through  a  wire  sieve.  Wash  the  oysters 
by  dipping  the  sieve  into  water,  or  by  allowing  water 
from  the  faucet  to  run  through  them.  Melt  the  butter 
in  a  frying-pan ;  add  the  crumbs,  salt  and  pepper.  Place 
a  layer  of  crumbs  in  a  buttered  baking-dish,  then  a  layer 
of  oysters,  then  a  layer  of  crumbs,  until  the  dish  is  filled, 
finishing  with  a  layer  of  crumbs  on  top.  Add  the  liquor 
left  from  draining  the  oysters,  and  just  enough  milk  to 
show  on  the  top  at  the  side  of  the  dish.  Bake  in  a  moderate 
oven  forty  to  fifty  minutes. 

FRIED    OR   SAUTEED    FISH 

Clean  the  fish  carefully,  being  sure  that  all  the  scales 
are  removed.  Split  the  fish  on  the  under  side,  lengthwise, 
and  clean  the  inside  carefully.  A  large  fish  can  then  be 
cut  into  pieces  of  the  desired  length  ;  a  small  fish  need  not 
be  cut.  Roll  each  piece  in  equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and 
flour,  or  in  egg  and  bread  crumbs  as  for  croquettes.  Fry 
in  deep  fat  or  saute*  in  the  frying-pan  until  tender.  Tomato 
sauce  may  be  served  with  the  fish  if  desired. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  included  under  the  name  poultry? 

2.  What  is  included  under  game  ? 

3.  What  is  a  " spring  chicken"?  a  broiler? 

4.  How  may  the  age  of  a  fowl  be  determined  ? 

5.  What  is  the  white  meat  of  a  chicken  ? 

6.  Is  it  tender  or  tough  ?    Explain  the  structure. 

7.  What  foods  should  not  be  used  in  a  meal  when  chicken  is 
served  ? 

8.  In  what  forms  may  fish  be  found  in  every  market  ? 

9.  What  kinds  of  fish,  fit  for  food,  are  caught  in  the  rivers 
and  lakes  in  this  locality  ? 

10.  In  what  ways  have  you  seen  fresh  fish  served,  other  than 
fried  or  saut^ed  ? 

11.  What  is  the  price  of  oysters  per  quart?  per  pint? 


138  FOODS   AND   COOKERY 

12.  How  are  oysters  kept  at  the  store? 

13.  Is  it  economical  to  serve  scalloped  oysters  and  meat  in 
the  same  meal?    Why? 

DESSERTS 

Desserts  may  be  divided  into  four  large  groups : 
(1)  fruits,  either  fresh,  dried,  or  cooked,  (2)  puddings, 
(3)  pastry,  (4)  frozen  desserts ;  as  a  fifth,  cakes  may 
be  added. 

Elaborate  desserts,  which  require  a  great  length 
of  time  spent  in  preparation,  should  not  be  used  often 
in  most  households,  because  simple  desserts  taste 
just  as  well  and  the  housekeeper  may  use  her  time 
for  more  useful  work,  or  for  recreation. 

In  choosing  a  dessert  to  use  at  the  end  of  a  meal, 
one  must  consider  what  foods  have  already  been 
served  in  the  other  courses.  If  everyone  has  had 
all  the  food  needed  and  feels  satisfied  before  dessert 
is  served,  it  is  then  a  wise  plan  to  omit  dessert. 
When  a  dessert  is  served  after  a  heavy  meal  it  should 
consist  of  fruit  or  a  gelatine  pudding,  rather  than  of 
pie  or  a  rich  pudding.  When  pie  is  served  it  should 
follow  a  meal  in  which  little  fat  and  protein  have 
been  eaten.  No  one  should  eat  pie  three  times  a 
day,  nor  every  day. 

A  pie  should  have  a  light,  flaky,  tender  crust  that 
is  thoroughly  baked.  Pie  crust  must  be  chewed 
thoroughly,  since  even  the  best  is  hard  to  digest. 
It  is  easier  to  make  tender  pie  crust  from  pastry 
flour,  because  that  contains  less  gluten  and  more 
starch  than  bread  flour.  Bread  flour  may  be  used, 
however.  Many  kinds  of  fat  are  used  in  pie  crust, 
such  as  lard,  butter,  vegetable  fats  and  oils.  Fat 
makes  the  crust  " short"  and  flaky,  and  is  often 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  139 

called  "  shortening ."  The  crust  is  made  tender  by 
careful  handling,  and  by  folding  and  rolling  several 
times  so  that  air  is  folded  into  the  dough.  This 
air,  and  the  steam  formed  from  the  water  used  in 
the  mixture,  expand  the  dough  during  baking  and 
make  the  pie  crust  light. 

Desserts  containing  eggs  and  milk  should  be  served 
only  at  the  end  of  a  meal  when  little  protein  has 
been  eaten  in  the  other  courses. 

Frozen  desserts  may  be  made,  mainly  of  cream, 
milk,  eggs  and  sugar,  such  as  plain  ice  cream, 
French  ice  cream,  or  mousse ;  or  they  may  be  made 
of  water,  fruit  juice  and  sugar,  such  as  sherbet, 
water  ice  or  frappe*. 

Desserts  are  frozen  by  the  use  of  ice  mixed  with 
coarse  or  "rock"  salt  in  the  proportion  of  one  part 
of  salt  to  three  parts  of  cracked  ice.  When  ice 
melts,  heat  is  absorbed  from  the  surrounding  ma- 
terials. When  salt  is  added,  the  ice  melts  at  a 
lower  temperature  and  a  greater  amount  of  heat  is 
absorbed.  The  freezing  of  the  mixture,  in  a  can 
surrounded  by  ice,  is  brought  about  because  the 
ice  and  salt  absorb  the  heat  from  the  contents  of 
the  can. 

In  freezing  a  mixture  that  is  to  be  of  a  fine  smooth 
texture,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  the  crank  of  the 
freezer  slowly  and  steadily.  Ices  and  sherbets  do 
not  need  such  careful  beating,  and  mousse  is  not 
beaten  at  all  after  it  is  put  into  the  freezer. 

HOME  PROBLEMS   AND   QUESTIONS 

Plan  a  dinner,  consisting  of  meat,  vegetables  and 
salad,  that  is  suitable  for  the  season. 


140  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Plan  one  consisting  of  meat,  vegetables,  salad 
and  dessert,  suitable  for  the  season. 

Plan  a  "  one-dish  "  meal. 

Would  other  foods  need  to  be  added  for  the  small 
child  ?  If  so,  what  would  you  add  ? 

Plan  a  dinner  in  which  custard  pie  might  be  served. 

The  following  dinner  will  be  served  during  the 
next  laboratory  period : 

Swiss  steak  with  gravy 

Candied  sweet  potatoes 

Salad :    green  beans,  chopped  onion  and  parsley,  with 

French  dressing 
Lemon  gelatine  with  whipped  cream 

Make  a  plan  for  preparing  the  dinner.  What 
proportions  of  each  recipe  should  be  made  for  the 
number  to  be  served  ? 

Make  a  list  of  the  food,  with  the  amount  that 
will  be  needed  for  the  meal.  Give  the  order  in 
which  the  food  is  to  be  prepared.  What  dishes  will 
be  needed  for  serving  the  meal  in  the  English  style  ? 
Bring  the  plan  to  class  for  discussion. 

Find  in  the  dictionary  or  encyclopedia  what  you 
can  about  spices,  such  as  nutmeg,  cloves,  cinnamon, 
mustard  and  ginger;  also  about  pepper .. and  salt. 
How  is  vinegar  made?  From  what  is  extract  of 
vanilla  made  ? 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

DESSERTS 
PLAIN   PASTRY 

1  c.  flour  \  tsp.  salt 

J  c.  lard  Ice  water 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  141 

Sift  the  flour  before  measuring  it.  Add  salt  to  flour, 
and  sift  again.  Cut  in  shortening  with  two  knives.  Add 
just  enough  water  to  make  a  dough  that  can  be  rolled. 
Chill,  roll  out,  fold,  roll  again,  repeating  two  or  three 
times. 

When  a  crust  is  to  be  baked  without  a  filling,  the  dough 
may  be  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  pie-pan  turned  up- 
side down.  Prick  the  crust  well  with  a  fork  to  keep  it 
from  blistering.  A  pie  crust  should  be  baked  in  a  hot  oven. 
Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  burn  the  edges. 

Let  members  of  the  class  suggest  fillings  for  a  one-crust 
pie.  Perhaps  some  can  bring  a  good  recipe  that  may  be 
used  in  class. 

Fruit  pies  are  much  easier  digested  if  they  are  made 
with  only  a  top  crust.  The  fruit  is  placed  in  a  deep  pie- 
pan  of  earthenware,  enamel  ware,  or  glass.  The  crust 
is  then  placed  over  the  top,  pressed  down  well  on  the  edge, 
and  baked.  When  two  crusts  are  used,  the  lower  crust 
must  be  baked  thoroughly  and  the  pie  should  be  removed 
from  the  pan  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  from  the  oven.  The 
steam  which  collects  on  the  pan  has  a  tendency  to  make 
the  lower  crust  soggy. 

This  is  a  good  pudding  to  use  for  Thanksgiving  or 
Christmas : 

STEAMED   PUDDING 

2  c.  bread  crumbs  £  c.  suet 

J  tsp.  soda  |  c.  molasses 

£  ts&.  cloves  1  egg 

I  tsp.  cinnamon  £  c.  milk 

I  tsp.  salt  £  c.  currants 
£  c.  raisins 

Mix  a  little  flour  with  the  suet,  then  chop  it  in  a  chop- 
ping-bowl  with  a  chopping-knife,  or  put  it  through  the 
meat-grinder.  Beat  the  egg  and  add  the  milk.  Wash 
the  raisins  and  currants  in  a  wire  strainer  by  running  cold 
water  through  them ;  dry  on  a  towel ;  cut  the  raisins  in 
halves.  Mix  the  raisins  and  currants  with  a  little  flour, 


142  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

as  this  makes  them  mix  with  the  dough  more  easily.  Add 
crumbs,  spices,  soda,  currants,  raisins  and  suet  to  the 
milk-and-egg  mixture.  Then  add  the  molasses.  Pour 
into  a  well  greased  pudding  mold.  Steam  two  hours. 
Remove  lid  of  pudding  mold,  place  pudding  in  oven  and 
bake  for  a  few  minutes.  Serve  with  any  kind  of  sauce 
desired. 

HARD    SAUCE 

I  c.  butter  1  tsp.  vanilla 

1  c.  powdered  sugar 

Cream  the  butter  and  add  sugar  gradually,  beating 
until  the  sauce  is  light  and  creamy;  add  flavoring.  Set 
in  a  cool  place  until  served. 

PUDDING   SAUCE 

\  c.  sugar  3  tbsp.  butter 

\  c.  water  J  tsp.  vanilla 

A  little  cinnamon  or  nutmeg  may  be  added 

Boil  together  until  the  sauce  is  of  the  desired  thickness. 
This  may  be  varied  by  pouring  the  hot  liquid  over  a  well 
beaten  egg.  Beat  mixture  thoroughly.  Why  should  the 
mixture  be  poured  over  the  egg  slowly  ? 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Into  what  groups  may  desserts  be  divided? 

2.  Should  elaborate  desserts  be  served  often  in  most  homes  ? 
Why? 

3.  When  should  pie  be  eaten? 

4.  What  is  ' '  shortening ' '  ? 

5.  State  the  characteristics  of  a  good  pie  crust. 

6.  What  makes  the  crust  "light"? 

7.  What  kind  of  desserts  may  be  served  at  the  end  of  a  heavy 
meal? 

8.  What  materials  are  used  for  freezing  desserts?    in  what 
proportions  ? 

9.  Explain  the  freezing  of  ice  cream. 

10.   How  is  a  smooth  texture  obtained  in  a  frozen  mixture? 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  143 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
SERVE   A   DINNER 

Suggested  Menu  for  a  company  dinner : 

Bouillon,  wafers 

Swiss  steak  with  gravy 

Candied  sweet  potatoes 

Salad  :  green  beans,  chopped  onion  and  parsley 

Lemon  gelatine  with  whipped  cream 

Date  cakes 

Plan  other  company  dinners. 
Plan  a  menu  for  a  Thanksgiving  dinner. 
Plan  a  menu  for  a  Christmas  dinner. 
Discuss  the  cost  of  all  meals  served. 

THE  DAILY  MEALS  OF  THE  FAMILY 
GROUP 

The  three  meals  that  are  eaten  daily  by  the  family 
group  have  been  studied  separately,  but  before  leav- 
ing the  subject  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  making 
of  the  plans  for  the  day  and  for  the  week.  One 
meal  may  be  planned  correctly,  but  the  diet  is  not 
well  balanced  unless  the  three  meals  for  each  and 
every  day  furnish  the  proper  amount  of  foodstuffs 
for  body-building  and  for  warmth  and  energy. 

How,  then,  shall  one  know  when  enough  of  the 
right  kind  of  food  is  eaten  ?  Persons  who  have 
studied  the  science  of  nutrition  have  set  standards 
to  follow  that  are  a  great  help  to  the  housekeeper. 

Heat  and  energy  furnished  by  a  given  amount  of 
food  are  measured  by  the  scientist,  and  the  unit  of 
measure  that  he  uses  is  called  a  Calorie.  A  Calorie 
is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  tempera- 


144 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


ture  of  one  pound  of  water  four  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
or  a  kilogram  of  water  one  degree  centigrade. 

By  placing  food  in  a  food  calorimeter,  a  machine 
designed  for  the  purpose,  it  is  possible  to  measure 


SERVING  THE  DINNEB  WITH  A  TEA-CART 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


145 


how  much  heat  will  be  produced  from  a  certain 
amount  of  food  when  it  is  burned,  or  oxidized.  In 
a  machine  called  a  respiration  calorimeter,  it  is 
possible  to  measure  the  amount  of  warmth  and  energy 
used  by  a  person  in  doing  work,  or  in  merely  keeping 
the  body  warm  and  active.  Even  when  quiet,  a 
certain  amount  of  energy  is  being  used  by  the  body, 
as  for  example  in  breathing. 

Since,  then,  the  scientist  is  able  to  measure  in 
Calories  the  amount  of  heat  required  by  the  body, 
and  is  also  able  to  measure  how  many  Calories  are 
furnished  by  portions  of  different  foods,  it  becomes 
possible  for  him  to  set  a  standard  for  the  daily  re- 
quirements of  food.  This  requirement  varies  with 
the  age,  the  size,  the  weight  and  the  work  being 
done  by  the  person  eating  the  food. 

The  following  is  one  standard  of  food  requirements : 

WARMTH  AND  ENERGY  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  ONE  DAY 


MEMBER  OF  FAMILY 

AGE 

WEIGHT 

IN 

POUNDS 

TOTAL 
CALORIES 
REQUIRED 

Man     .         

40 

154 

2770 

Woman                        . 

37 

125 

2250 

Baby    . 

1 

21 

840 

Boy 

3 

35 

1400 

Boy 

12 

75 

2250 

Girl 

6 

41 

1394 

Girl      

9 

56 

1848 

Woman          

90 

110 

1500 

Total  .     .     . 

14252 

A  list  of  the  number  of  Calories  furnished  by  a 
pound  of  the  different  foods  has  been  made  and 


146  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

published  in  a  bulletin  issued  by  the  Office  of  Ex- 
periment Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C.  It  is  entitled  "The 
Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food  Materials." 
It  is  difficult,  however,  to  learn  from  this  bulletin, 
without  the  use  of  a  great  deal  of  arithmetic,  just 
how  much  food  should  be  used 'to  furnish  a  certain 
number  of  Calories,  and  for  this  reason  there  have 
been  prepared  convenient  tables  of  standard  portions 
of  the  dishes  ordinarily  used .  A  "  standard  portion ' ' 
is  the  amount  needed  to  furnish  100  Calories  and  it  is 
sometimes  called  a  "100-Calorie  portion." 

At  the  end  of  this  section  will  be  found  a  list  of 
100-Calorie  portions  of  foods. 

The  following  method  should  be  used  when  calcu- 
lating the  number  of  Calories  being  served  in  a  meal : 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  foods  to  be  used. 

2.  Decide  on  the  size  of  the  portion  of  each  to  be 
served  —  as,  for  example,  whether  a  whole  orange 
or  one  half  orange  is  the  amount  to  be  used. 

3.  Look  at  the  table  of  "  100-Calorie  portions  "  and 
find  the  size  of  the  portion  of  each  food  needed  to 
furnish  100  Calories  to  the  body. 

4.  If  the  portion  furnishing  100  Calories  is  more 
than  you  expect  to  serve,  then  multiply  100  by  one 
half,  one  third,  or  by  whatever  proportion  of  the  "  100- 
Calorie  portion"  is  to  be  served,  to  determine  the 
number  of  Calories  being  supplied.     For  example, 
if  one  cup  of  cooked  oatmeal  is  a  "100-Calorie  por- 
tion" and  only  a  half  cup  of  cooked  oatmeal  is  being 
served,  it  will  be  necessary  to  multiply  100  by  ^  to 
determine  the  number  of  Calories  served. 

5.  If  the  portion  furnishing  100  Calories  is  less 
than  the  amount  served,  then  100  must  be  multiplied 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY 


147 


by  the  number  of  times  the  portion  is  to  be  used  to 
make  the  desired  serving.  For  example,  one  half 
baked  apple  is  a  "100-Calorie  portion",  but  if  a 
whole  baked  apple  is  to  be  served,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  multiply  100  by  2  to  determine  the  number  of 
Calories  supplied. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  way  of  working 
out  the  number  of  Calories  served  for  breakfast : 

BREAKFAST 


FOOD 

AMOUNT  SERVED 

CALORIES 

Orange 

i  orange 

50 

Whole  milk  to  drink  .     .     . 
Oatmeal,  cooked  .... 
Cream,  this  for  oatmeal 
Sugar  for  oatmeal      .     .     . 
Bread  

f  measuring  cup 
£cup 
icup 
^  scant  teaspoonful 
1  slice,  \  in.  thick 

100 
50 
100 
25 
100 

Total  Calories  . 

425 

Each  meal  may  be  worked  out  in  the  same  way 
for  each  member  of  the  family.  The  total  amount 
of  the  foods  needed  for  the  entire  family  may  be 
found  by  adding  together  the  individual  portions. 
No  housekeeper  will  need  to  work  this  out  every 
day,  because  after  doing  it  several  times  she  can 
estimate  by  the  amount  of  food  she  is  serving  whether 
enough  Calories  are  being  supplied  in  the  diet. 

Other  necessary  points  to  be  observed  in  planning 
the  day's  diet  are  : 

1.  Furnish  variety  in  the  diet  by  serving  different 
kinds  of  food  or  by  changing  the  method  of  prepara- 
tion. 

2.  It  is  necessary  to  have  all  the  foodstuffs  repre- 


148  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

sented  in  the  day's  diet,  and  it  is  best  to  have  them 
in  good  proportions  in  each  meal. 

3.  An  attractive  meal  is  enjoyed  by  the  family. 
To  be  attractive  it  must  be  well  cooked  and  served, 
and  the  foods  combined  properly  in  regard  to  flavor 
and  appearance. 

4.  It  is  always  wise  to  consider  the  cost,  and  to 
remember  that  the  most  expensive  foods  often  have 
no  greater  food  value    than  cheaper  kinds.     One 
fourth  to  one  half  of  the  average  income  has  to  be 
spent  for  food,  and  when  the  housekeeper  is  careless 
in  selecting  the  food,  more  money  than  is  necessary 
may  be  spent. 

5.  It  is  necessary  to  change  the  diet  to  suit  the 
season  of  the  year.     The  body  requires  less  food 
for  warmth  in  summer  than  in  winter,  and  there  is 
less  used  for  muscular  energy,  therefore  foods  con- 
taining large  amounts  of  fat  are  not  required.     Some 
of  the  foods  to  be  avoided  in  summer  are  hot  breads, 
fat  meats,  pastries,  rich  cakes,  sauces  and  gravies. 

6.  It  is  very  important  to  know  that  children  need 
simple,  well  cooked  foods,  that  milk  is  essential  for 
every  child,  that  butter  is  better  for  the  child  than 
a   butter   substitute   because   the   butter   contains 
vitamines,  that  fruits  and  cereals  are  essential,  and 
that  eggs,  milk  and  cereals  are  better  to  use  than 
a  large  quantity  of  meat. 

7.  No  one  can  balance  meals  properly  without 
knowing  which  foods  contain  the  foodstuffs  needed. 

HOME  PROBLEMS   AND   QUESTIONS 

Plan  meals  that  might  be  used  by  your  family  for 
a  day  hi  summer. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  149 

Plan  the  meals  for  a  day  in  winter. 
Make  a  list  of  groups  of  vegetables  that  may 
correctly  be  served  together. 

Estimate  the  cost  of  the  following  meal  for  six 
persons : 

Broiled  mutton  chops 

Baked  stuffed  potatoes 

Tomato  salad  with  French  dressing 

Sliced  peaches  with  cream 

Sponge  cake 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

FROZEN   DESSERTS 
VANILLA  ICE   CREAM 

1  qt.  cream  1  tsp.  vanilla 

f  c.  sugar 

Wash  and  scald  the  can,  cover  and  dasher  of  the  freezer. 
Carefully  place  the  can  in  the  freezer.  Place  the  ice  in  a 
heavy  cloth  sack  and  pound  until  it  is  broken  into  very 
small  pieces.  Crush  the  rock  salt  or  coarse  salt.  Pack 
the  freezer  with  alternating  layers  of  ice  and  salt,  until  the 
ice  is  just  below  the  top  of  the  can.  Have  the  ice-cream 
mixture  ready  and  pour  it  into  the  can ;  place  the  dasher 
in  the  can ;  cover ;  add  ice  until  the  can  is  covered.  Turn 
the  dasher  slowly  and  steadily  until  it  will  not  turn  any 
more.  Remove  ice  and  salt  from  top  of  can;  wipe  off 
carefully;  remove  lid  from  can;  take  out  dasher  care- 
fully ;  cover  can  and  put  a  stopper  in  hole  in  cover.  Drain 
off  all  water  from  the  tub,  repack  with  ice  and  salt,  using 
a  little  less  salt  (about  four  parts  ice  to  one  part  salt). 
Cover  the  can  with  ice ;  cover  freezer ;  set  in  cool  place 
and  let  stand  several  hours. 

If  no  freezer  is  available,  two  pans  may  be  used  for 
freezing,  placing  a  small  container  in  a  larger  one,  and 
packing  the  ice  and  salt  around  it.  The  stirring  is  done 


150  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

with  a  spoon.     This  method  of  freezing  is  successful  only 
when  a  small  quantity  of  ice  cream  is  being  made. 

LEMON  ICE 

4  c.  water  2  c.  sugar 

f  c.  lemon  juice 

Boil  sugar  and  water  together  for  five  minutes.  Add 
lemon  juice.  Strain  if  not  clear.  Freeze. 

CHOCOLATE  MOUSSE 

1  pt.  cream  4  oz.  chocolate 

%  c.  powdered  sugar  |  tsp.  salt 

Cut  the  chocolate  into  small  pieces,  or  grate  it.  Place  in 
a  small  saucepan  in  a  pan  of  boiling  water  until  it  is  melted. 
Whip  the  cream;  add  sugar,  salt  and  melted  chocolate. 
Turn  into  a  mold,  and  pack  the  mold  in  a  pan  of  ice  and 
salt.  Let  it  stand  five  hours. 

Smaller  proportions  of  the  recipes  may  be  made  if 
desired ;  then  the  freezing  will  require  less  time. 

100-CALORIE  PORTIONS 

While  the  mixtures  are  freezing,  let  the  class  examine 
100-Calorie  portions  of  the  following  foods  that  have  been 
prepared  by  the  teacher:  eggs,  beefsteak,  bacon,  bread, 
butter,  oatmeal,  milk,  cheese,  potatoes,  dried  beans, 
apples,  onions,  carrots,  rice,  macaroni,  olive  oil,  cotton- 
seed oil. 

What  portion  of  each  of  these  foods  would  usually  make 
one  serving?  Calculate  how  many  Calories  would  be 
furnished  by  the  following  meal,  using  the  table  at  the 
end  of  this  section: 

Broiled  beefsteak 

Baked  potato 

Lettuce  with  French  dressing 

Baked  apple 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  151 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Define  the  term  "Calorie." 

2.  What  is  a  "standard  portion"?    By  what  other  name  is 
it  sometimes  called  ? 

3.  How  do  scientists  determine  how  many  Calories  we  need 
each  day  ? 

4.  Which  of  the  foodstuffs  yield  warmth  and  energy?  Which 
of  these  are  used  by  the  body  in  other  ways  than  for  the  pro- 
duction of  warmth  and  energy? 

5.  How  should  the  foodstuffs  be  distributed  in  the  meals 
eaten  in  one  day? 

6.  Can  you  explain  why  the  boy  twelve  years  old  requires  a 
greater  number  of  Calories  per  day  than  the  woman  ninety  years 
old? 

7.  Are  the  following  meals  for  a  day  well  planned  ?    Explain 
the  reason  for  your  answer. 

QN  BREAKFASTS          /2) 

Eggs  and  bacon  Baked  apple 

Cocoa  Oatmeal 

Hot  baking-powder  biscuit         Toast 

Cocoa 

Q\  LUNCHEONS  /o\ 

Cream  soup  Bouillon 

Cheese  strata  Apple  salad  with  cooked  dressing 

Salmon  salad  Lemon  gelatine 

Bread  and  butter  Bread  and  butter 

/j\  DINNERS  /2\ 

Roast  beef  Baked  stuffed  potatoes 

Baked  beans  Buttered  carrots 

Lettuce  with  French  dressing  Fresh  celery 

Rice  pudding  Apple  pie 

Bread  and  butter  Cake 

8.  What  foods  is  it  well  to  avoid  in  hot  weather?    Why? 

9.  Name  some  foods  that  may  be  served  to  small  children ; 
some  that  should  not  be  served. 


152 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


10.  Why  is  butter  better  for  the  child  than  a  butter  substitute  ? 

11.  State  rules,  regarding  the  purchase  of  food,  that  will  help 
reduce  the  amount  of  money  spent. 

12.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  an  attractive  meal? 


100-CALORiE  PORTIONS  OF  UNCOOKED  FOODS 


FOOD 

WEIGHT 

IN 

OUNCES 

MEASURE 

REMARKS 

Apple 

74 

1 

large  size 

Bacon 

06 

slice 

4^  by  1^  by  ^  inches 

Banana 

5.5 

1 

large  size 

Beef,  round  steak  .  . 
Butter  

2.2 
0.5 

1  serving 
1  tablespoon 

2|  by  2f  by  \  inches 

Carrot  

10.0 

1 

length  6^,   diameter  2 

Cabbage  

11.2 

5  cups 

inches 
shredded 

Corn  on  cob 
Cottonseed  oil  .     .     . 
Cheese,  American  .     . 
Cream,  40%      ... 
Eecs 

9.0 
0.4 

0.8 

24 

2  ears 
1  tablespoon 
cube 
2  tablespoons 
1 

6  inches  long 
\\  inches 
very  large 

Flour,  white  .  .  . 
Lettuce  
Macaroni  .... 

Milk,  whole  .... 
Mutton  chops  .  .  . 
Navy  beans  .... 
Oatmeal  
Olive  oil  
Onions  
Orange 

1.0 

18.5 
1.0 

5.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
0.5 
7.0 
95 

4|  tablespoons 
2  heads 
i  cup 

f  cup 
1  chop 
2  tablespoons 
\  cup 
1  tablespoon 
4 
1 

large  size 
broken      into      1-inch 
pieces 

dried 
rolled 

medium-sized 
large 

Peach 

105 

3 

medium-sized 

Peas,  green  .... 
Rice  .... 

3.5 
1.0 

f  cup 

2  tablespoons 

shelled 

Sweet  potato  .  «  . 
Sugar  
Tomato,  fresh  .  f  .  . 

3.6 
0.9 
15.5 

£  potato 
2  tablespoons 
2  or  3 

medium-sized 
scant 
medium-sized 

FOODS   AND   COOKERY 

100-CALORiE  PORTIONS  OF  COOKED  FOODS 


153 


FOOD 

WEIGHT 

IN 

OUNCES 

MEASURE 

REMARKS 

Apple,  baked     .     .     . 

2.3 

\  apple 

large  size,  2  tbsp.  sugar 

Baking-powder  biscuit 

1.2 

2  biscuits 

small 

Bread,  white,  baker's 

1.0 

1  slice 

\  inch  thick 

Corn,  canned     . 

3.5 

1  serving 

French  dressing 

0.6 

\\  tablespoons 

Mashed  potatoes 

3.5 

\  cup 

scant 

Mayonnaise  dressing 

0.5 

1  tablespoon 

-^-  —  . 

Potato,  baked    . 

3.0 

1 

medium-sized 

Oatmeal,  cooked 

7.9 

1  cup 

Saltine  cracker  . 

0.8 

8  wafers 

Shredded  wheat 

0.9 

1  biscuit 

Sponge  cake 

0.9 

piece 

1  \  by  \\  by  2  inches 

THE  PRESERVATION   OF  FOODS 

Many  kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables;  all  meat,  fish 
and  poultry,  soon  spoil  unless  preserved  in  some 
way.  The  spoiling  of  food  is  brought  about  by 
molds,  yeast  and  bacteria,  which  are  called  micro- 
organisms. Yeast  and  bacteria  are  so  small  that 
they  can  be  seen  only  through  a  powerful  microscope, 
but  molds  can  be  seen  without  using  a  microscope. 
All  of  these  microorganisms  require  food,  warmth 
and  moisture  for  growth.  They  find  food  and 
moisture  in  many  of  our  foods,  and  because  they 
live  in  the  food  it  changes  and  perhaps  spoils. 

Food  is  preserved  either  by  killing  the  micro- 
organisms or  by  hindering  their  growth.  There  are 
four  methods  used :  (1)  by  keeping  food  at  a  low 
temperature,  (2)  by  drying,  (3)  by  the  use  of 
preservatives  and  (4)  by  sterilization. 

Foods  in  cold  storage  are  kept  at  such  a  low  temper- 
ature that  the  growth  of  the  microorganisms  is 


154  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

hindered.  Such  foods  as  meat,  eggs,  green  vegetables 
and  fruits  may  be  kept  in  this  way  for  different 
lengths  of  time  without  spoiling. 

Drying  is  used  for  preserving  certain  fruits  and 
vegetables,  meat  and  fish.  The  dried  product 
lacks  the  moisture  required  by  the  microorganisms 


COLD-PACK  CANNING 
Packing  asparagus  into  the  jar. 

for  growth ;  therefore  their  action  in  the  food   is 
hindered. 

Preservatives  are  materials  used  to  hinder  the 
growth  or  to  kill  microorganisms.  Sugar  in  quan- 
tity, salt,  vinegar  and  spices  are  harmless  preserva- 
tives. Saltpeter  and  smoke  are  also  used.  There 
are  also  harmful  substances  that  will  preserve  the 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  155 

food,  but  which  are  not  healthful  to  use,  such  as 
formaldehyde,  benzole  and  salicylic  acids. 

The  best  method  for  preserving  food  is  to  kill  the 
microorganisms  by  the  use  of  heat.  This  process 
is  called  sterilization.  In  canning,  the  food  is 
sterilized  and  then  sealed  in  sterilized  containers  so 
that  no  more  microorganisms  can  reach  it  from  the 
air.  Fruits,  vegetables,  meats,  fish  and  poultry  may 
be  preserved  by  this  method. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
PRESERVATION   OF   FRUIT 

MARMALADES 

The  general  rule  for  the  proportion  of  ingredients  in 
marmalades  is  as  follows : 

Use  one  half  as  much  sugar  as  fruit,  by  weight. 
Use  three  cups  of  water  to  each  pound  of  sugar. 
Make  orange  marmalade : 

ORANGE  MARMALADE 

1^  doz.  oranges  Water 

6  lemons  Sugar 

Wash  fruit ;  slice  in  very  thin  pieces  without  removing 
skins;  remove  seeds;  cut  into  small  pieces.  Weigh  the 
fruit,  calculate  the  sugar  that  is  needed;  calculate  the 
water  that  is  needed.  Place  the  water  over  the  fruit  and 
let  it  stand  twenty-four  hours.  Boil  gently  for  two  hours, 
add  sugar,  and  boil  until  the  syrup  is  as  thick  as  desired 
(usually  about  one  hour).  Place  in  small  sterilized  jars 
or  glasses ;  set  aside  to  cool. 

When  the  marmalade  is  cool,  melt  paraffin  and  pour 
over  the  top ;  cover  the  jars  or  glasses  with  lids  or  paper. 

GRAPE   CONSERVE 

2  qts.  grape  juice  2  Ibs.  seeded  raisins 

3  Ibs.  granulated  sugar        1  Ib.  English  walnut  meats 


156  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

Boil  the  grape  juice  with  the  raisins  and  sugar,  until  it 
thickens  when  a  drop  is  placed  on  a  cool  saucer.  Add 
walnuts,  chopped  fine.  Cook  a  few  minutes;  place  in 
sterilized  jars  or  glasses.  Cover  the  conserve  with  paraffin 
when  it  is  cold. 

GRAPE  JUICE 

10  Ibs.  Concord  grapes  2  qts.  water 

2  Ibs.  sugar 

Wash  the  grapes  and  remove  them  from  the  stems,  add 
the  water ;  boil  until  the  skins  are  soft.  Strain  through  a 
wet  jelly-bag.  Re-heat  the  juice  and  add  the  sugar; 
boil  for  two  or  three  minutes.  Pour  into  hot  sterilized 
jars  or  bottles;  seal.  When  corks  are  used  in  the  top 
of  bottles,  seal  by  using  paraffin.  This  juice  may  be 
made  in  the  fall,  and  the  conserve  made  during  the  winter. 

The  grapes  left  in  the  jelly-bag  may  be  run  through  a 
wire  sieve,  and  the  pulp  added  to  the  grape  conserve,  if 
the  conserve  is  to  be  made  at  the  same  time  as  the  grape 
juice.  If  not,  the  pulp  may  have  sugar  added  and  be 
boiled  until  thickened,  and  used  as  grape  butter. 

SWEET  PICKLED  PEACHES 

7  Ibs.  peaches  (after  stones  are      2  oz.  cinnamon 

removed)  1  qt.  vinegar 

3£  Ibs.  sugar  2  oz.  cloves 

Make  a  syrup  of  the  sugar,  vinegar,  stick  cinnamon  and 
cloves ;  boil  until  it  is  thickened.  Cut  peaches  in  halves. 
Add  peaches  and  cook  until  they  are  tender.  Remove 
each  piece  with  a  spoon  and  pack  in  a  sterilized  jar ;  boil 
the  syrup  until  it  is  thick,  and  pour  it  over  the  fruit. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  causes  the  spoiling  of  fruits,  vegetables  and  meats? 

2.  How  is  food  preserved  ? 

3.  What  foods  are  kept  in  cold  storage  ? 

4.  What  foods  may  be  dried  ? 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


157 


5.  Name  the  materials  that  are  used  to  preserve  food. 

6.  What  is  the  method  of  preservation  used  in  making  orange 
marmalade?  sweet  pickled  peaches? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  sterilization? 

8.  What  is  a  sterilized  jar?  (See  section  on  Jelly-making.) 

9.  Why  must  the  sterilized  jars  be  used  while  they  are  hot, 
and  without  wiping  them  out  with  a  towel? 

10.   Which  method  of  preservation  is  the  best  to  use  for  food 
when  it  must  be  kept  for  long  periods  ? 


CANNING 

Canning  may  be  done  in  two  ways  : 
1.   Open-kettle  method,  when  the  food  is  cooked 
until  it  is  tender  and  sterilized,  and  is  then  put  in 


TYPES  OP  CANNERS 
Left  to  right :  hot-water  bath,  steam  cooker,  pressure  cooker. 

sterilized  jars  and  immediately  sealed.     This  is  the 
oldest  method  of  canning  foods. 

2.  Cold-pack  method,  when  the  food  is  packed  in 
jars,  the  jar  filled  with  liquid,  —  which  may  be 
syrup,  water,  or  broth,  —  the  rubber  adjusted  to 
the  can,  the  cover  placed  in  position,  but  only 


158 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY 


partly  screwed  or  clamped  on,  and  the  jar  placed  in 
a  cooker  in  which  the  food  will  be  sterilized  and 
cooked  until  tender.  The  jar  is  then  removed  from 
the  cooker  and  sealed  at  once. 

Cookers  used  for  canning  by  the  cold-pack  process 
are  (1)  the  steam-pressure  cooker,  (2)  the  steam 
cooker  and  (3)  the  hot-water  bath  cooker,  the  last 
being  the  most  commonly  used.  This  cooker  can 
be  made  at  home  by  using  a  wash-boiler  or  other 
container  that  has  a  lid  and  a  false  bottom,  or  rack, 


TYPES  OF  JARS  USED  IN  CANNING 

to  raise  the  jars  at  least  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
or  an  inch .  off  the  bottom  of  the  container.  The 
steam-pressure  cooker  and  the  steam  cooker  are 
manufactured  in  different  types. 

Canning  can  be  done  in  the  shortest  time  with  the 
pressure  cooker,  but  the  product  is  no  better  than 
that  secured  with  the  hot- water  bath.  Both  the 
steam-pressure  cooker  and  the  steam  cooker  can  be 
used  for  other  kinds  of  cookery  than  canning,  which 
makes  them  comparatively  less  expensive. 

There  are  numerous  types  of  jars  that  may  be 
used,  and  any  type  is  satisfactory  when  the  cover 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY 


159 


fits  well  and  is  in  a  sanitary  condition.  Many  old 
screw-top  jars  are  not  fit  to  use  unless  new  lids  are 
purchased,  because  dirt  cannot  be  cleaned  from  the 
crevices  when  it  has  collected  in  the  old  lids.  In 
buying  new  jars,  it  is  better  to  select  those  with  glass 
lids  and  a  large  "mouth"  or  opening.  Tin  cans 
may  be  used  instead  of  glass,  but  any  food  that 
will  keep  in  tin  will  be  more  easily  and  safely  canned 
in  glass.  Tin  is  used  in  commercial  canning,  be- 
cause tin  containers  can  be  more  easily  packed  and 
shipped. 

Good  can-rubbers  are  necessary  if  the  products 
placed  in  the  cans  are  to  keep  well.     Rubbers  should 


ATTRACTIVE  JARS  OF  FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 

be  tested  before  being  used,  by  stretching  them  to 
see  if  they  will  break,  and  by  doubling  them  together 
and  pressing  at  the  fold  to  see  whether  the  rubber 
will  crack.  Good  rubbers  will  not  be  affected  by 
either  test. 

Select  for  canning,  firm  fresh  fruit  that  is  not  over- 
ripe, vegetables  that  are  fresh  and  crisp,  and  meat 
that  is  in  perfect  condition.  If  poor  products  are 
used,  the  results  will  be  poor. 

Vegetables  and  meat  are  most  successfully  canned 
by  the  cold-pack  method.  Fruits  keep  their  shape 
and  color  better  when  canned  by  this  method,  but 


160  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

the  open-kettle  method  may  be  used  more  success- 
fully with  fruits  than  with  vegetables  and  meats. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
CANNING   FRUITS   AND   VEGETABLES 

To  can  pears  by  the  cold-pack  method :  Wash  the  pears, 
peel,  cut  into  halves  and  remove  the  cores.  Place  in  a 
clean,  hot,  tested  jar,  packing  carefully.  Over  the 
pears  pour  boiling  syrup  until  the  can  is  filled  to  within 
one  fourth  inch  of  top ;  adjust  lid  and  partially  seal. 
Place  can  in  hot-water  bath  cooker,  having  the  water 
deep  enough  to  come  one  inch  above  the  top  of  the  can. 
The  time  for  boiling,  or  "  processing  "  as  it  is  called, 
is  given  in  the  table  at  the  end  of  the  lesson.  Remove 
can  from  cooker  and  seal  at  once.  Follow  the  directions 
about  removing  the  can  which  come  with  the  pressure 
cooker.  Never  remove  the  lid  from  the  can  after 
processing.  Turn  the  can  upside  down,  so  that  it  can 
be  observed  for  leakage  (which  means  a  poor  seal)  and 
place  where  there  is  no  draft.  Lay  a  towel  over  the  cans 
until  they  are  partly  cooled.  This  will  prevent  any  chance 
of  a  draft  reaching  the  hot  can  and  causing  it  to  crack. 
When  cold,  jars  may  be  wrapped  in  paper  and  stored,  or 
placed  in  a  dark,  cool,  dry  place  without  wrapping. 

To  test  a  jar :  Fill  the  jar  half  full  of  water.  Test  the 
can-rubber.  Place  the  rubber  and  lid  on  can.  Seal. 
Turn  can  upside  down.  If  it  does  not  leak  after  stand- 
ing a  few  minutes  it  is  in  good  condition  to  use  for 
canning.  When  using  the  jar,  be  sure  that  the  same 
lid  with  which  it  was  tested  is  replaced  on  the  jar.  If  a 
jar  leaks,  remove  the  lid  and  test  with  another  lid.  In 
using  glass  lids  there  sometimes  will  be  found  a  rough 
spot  on  the  lid  or  on  the  jar  that  may  be  removed  by 
scraping  with  a  knife,  after  which  the  fit  will  be  perfect. 
If  jars  are  heated  before  using,  then  hot  syrup,  water, 
or  broth  may  be  poured  into  them  without  cracking  the 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  161 

jar,  and  the  jar  may  be  placed  in  hot  water  in  the  water 
bath,  which  means  a  saving  of  time  in  cooking. 

SYRUP  FOR  CANNING 

Use  three  cups  of  sugar  to  two  cups  of  water,  boiling 
until  as  thick  as  desired.     Usually  for  canning  fruit  by  the 
method  given  for  canning  pears,  a  medium  thick  syrup 
would  be  best  to  use.   A  medium  thick  syrup  is  one  that  has 
begun  to  thicken  and  becomes  sticky  when  cooled  on  the 
spoon.    For  very  sour  fruits  a  thicker  syrup  should  be  used. 
To   can  tomatoes   by  the   cold-pack  method :    Scald  or 
"  blanch  "  tomatoes  1J  minutes.     The  easier  way  to  do 
this  is  to  place  the  tomatoes  in  a  frying-basket  and  set 
the  basket  into  boiling  water.     Lift  out  the  basket  and 
dip  at  once  into  cold  water.     Remove  from  water,  re- 
move skins  and  stem-ends.     Pack  tightly  into  tested 
jars,  pressing  down  gently  but  firmly.     This  will  cause 
enough  juice  to  form  in  the  can  so  that  no  boiling  water 
need  be  added.     Add  1  teaspoon  salt  to  each  quart. 
Adjust  rubber  and  lid,  partially  seal.     Place  in  hot- 
water  bath,  steam  cooker,  or  pressure  cooker.     Cook  for 
the  required  length  of  time,  as  given  in  the  table  at 
end  of  lesson.     For  finishing  the  canning,  follow  direc- 
tions given  in  the  recipe  for  canning  peas. 

All  vegetables  must  be  blanched,  then  cold-dipped 
before  packing  in  cans.  This  reduces  the  bulk,  does 
away  with  objectionable  flavors  and  makes  the  color 
better.  In  canning  most  vegetables,  it  is  necessary  to 
add  boiling  water  to  fill  the  can  after  the  food  is  packed 
in  the  can.  The  can  should  be  filled  to  within  a  quarter 
inch  of  the  top. 

TIME  TABLE   FOR   PROCESSING   FRUITS   AND 
VEGETABLES 

This  is  the  time  required  for  quart  jars.     For  pints, 
reduce  the  time  five  minutes. 


162 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY 


FOR  HOT- 
WATER  BATH 

FOR  PRESSURE 
COOKER 

FOR  STEAM 
COOKER 

BLANCH 
FOR  EITHER 
METHOD 

Minutes 

Minutes 

Minutes 

Minutes 

Apples  .     .     . 

15  to    25 

5  Ibs.  for  10 

15-25 

2 

Beans,    string 

120  to  180 

20  Ibs.  for  40 

120-180 

5  to  10 

Cherries 

16 

5  Ibs.  for  5  to  6 

16 

1 

Corn     . 

180 

20  Ibs.  for  40 

180 

5  to  15 

Greens 

90 

20  Ibs.  for  30  to  35 

120 

15  to  20 

Peaches 

20 

5  Ibs.  for  5  to  10 

20 

| 

Pears    . 

20  to  30 

5  Ibs.  for  5  to  10 

20 

ll 

Peas      . 

120 

20  Ibs.  for  40 

120 

5  to  10 

Pineapple 

20  to  30 

5  Ibs.  for  10 

20 

3 

Sweet  peppers 

90 

20  Ibs.  for  35 

90 

10 

C1  J.                 K              ' 

8tn   1  A 

51  Ha      •fnT*    ^   -f  n   f{ 

O      1  f\ 

o  tra  w  Dernes 
Tomatoes 

LO    XO 

22 

IDS.  i  or  o  i/o  o 
10  Ibs.  for  10 

o  —  1O 

22 

%  to  1 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  two  methods  used  for  canning  fruits,  vegetables 
and  meats. 

2.  Which  is  the  older  method  ?  the  better  method  ? 

3.  Name  the  types  of  cookers  that  may  be  used  in  canning. 
In  which  can  the  processing  be  done  most  rapidly? 

4.  What  are  the  necessary  characteristics  of  a  jar  used  for 
canning? 

5.  What  type  of  jar  is  best  to  purchase? 

6.  What  is  the  price  per  dozen  of  pint  jars?  of  quart  jars? 
of  half-pint  jars? 

7.  Is  it  advisable  to  use  tin  cans  for  home  canning  ? 

8.  State  the  method  for  testing  rubbers. 

9.  How  should  a  jar  be  tested  before  using? 

10.  What  should  be  the  quality  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
selected  for  canning? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "processing"?  blanching? 

12.  Why  must  the  lids  never  be  removed  from  the  cans  after 
processing? 

JELLY-MAKING 

Jelly  is  made  from  the  juice  of  fruits.  Good  jelly 
is  clear,  of  a  pleasing  color,  tender  and  firm  enough 
to  keep  its  shape  when  turned  out  of  the  mold.  It 


FOODS   AND   COOKERY  163 

should  not,  however,  be  so  stiff  that  it  does  not 
"quiver." 

Fruit  juice  can  be  made  into  jelly  when  it  con- 
tains two  substances,  (1)  pectin  and  (2)  acid.  All 
fruits  do  not  contain  these  in  sufficient  amounts 
to  make  good  jelly;  and  often  it  is  necessary  to 
combine  the  juices  of  two  fruits  before  the  juice  will 
"jell."  Sugar  helps  to  make  the  juice  form  jelly, 

but     unless    pectin 

and  acid  are  present, 


no  amount  of  sugar 
will  have  that  effect. 

Fruits     used     for 
jelly  should  not  be 

over-ripe,  and  some-  TYPES  OF  JELLY.GLASSES 

times  it  is  better  to 

use  green  fruits,  because  as  fruit  ripens  it  contains 
less  pectin  and  acid.  Tart  apples,  grapes,  currants, 
crab  apples  and  plums  are  good  fruits  to  use  for 
making  jelly.  Sweet  ripe  apples,  strawberries, 
blackberries,  peaches  and  pears  are  poor  fruits 
from  which  to  make  jelly. 

Lemon  and  orange  peel  contain  pectin  in  consider- 
able amounts  and  are  sometimes  used  to  make  fruit 
juices  "jell."  Remove  the  yellow  layer  of  the  peel 
and  put  the  white  material  that  is  left  through  the 
food-grinder,  cover  with  water  and  let  stand  several 
hours,  then  cook  slowly  for  two  or  three  hours,  strain 
the  liquid  and  add  it  to  the  fruit  juice  that  lacks 
pectin. 

Sometimes  fruits  lack  acid  and  are  improved  for 
jelly-making  by  adding  lemon  juice. 

It  is  always  best  to  test  the  juice  in  order  to  de- 
termine how  much  sugar  should  be  added  to  make 


164  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

good  jelly,  since  fruits  of  the  same  variety  vary  when 
grown  under  different  conditions.  This  is  done  by 
placing  one  teaspoonful  of  fruit  juice  and  one 
teaspoonful  of  grain  alcohol  together  in  a  glass  and 
allowing  it  to  stand  for  five  minutes.  Pour  slowly 
from  the  glass  and  observe  the  mass  formed ;  if  a 
firm  mass  that  does  not  break  apart  has  been  formed, 
then  the  proportion  of  one  cup  of  sugar  to  each  cup 
of  j  uice  is  correct ;  if  the  mass  breaks  apart  into 
several  pieces,  use  three  fourths  of  a  cup  of  sugar 
to  one  cup  of  juice ;  if  the  mass  shows  no  distinct 
lumps,  use  one  half  cup  or  less  of  sugar  to  each 
cup  of  juice.  This  test  saves  a  great  deal  of  time 
and  trouble  in  making  jelly. 

In  straining  the  juice  from  the  fruit  after  cooking, 
a  jelly-bag  is  used.  It  is  usually  made  from  firm 
cotton  cloth  that  has  been  thoroughly  washed  and 
boiled.  The  bag  may  be  made  three-cornered  in 
shape,  so  that  the  juice  drips  from  a  corner  when 
hung  to  drain. 

Jelly  is  usually  put  up  in  glasses  made  for  the 
purpose.  These  should  be  sterilized  by  placing 
them  in  cold  water,  bringing  it  to  the  boiling-point 
and  boiling  for  twenty  minutes.  Do  not  wipe  the 
glasses;  take  them  from  the  water  with  a  lifter  or 
wooden  spoon  and  fill  at  once. 

Jelly  should  be  covered.  An  easy  method  is  to 
use  paraffin,  which  may  be  melted  and  poured  over 
the  top  of  the  jelly.  Cover  the  glasses,  either  with 
the  lid  that  comes  with  the  regular  jelly-glass,  or 
with  white  paper  tied  on.  Store  in  a  dark,  cool,  dry 
place. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  165 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
JELLY-MAKING 

Experiment :  Test  the  following  juices  to  determine  what 
proportion  of  sugar  to  juice  should  be  used :  grape, 
sweet  apple,  plum,  crab  apple,  peach.  If  necessary, 
add  a  measured  amount  of  juice,  extracted  from  lemon 
peel  or  orange  peel,  to  the  tested  juice  to  make  it  respond 
to  the  test. 

CRAB   APPLE   JELLY 

Wash  the  apples,  cut  into  quarters  and  remove  cores. 
Add  water  to  the  apples,  using  about  half  as  much  water 
as  there  is  fruit.  Boil  until  tender;  place  in  wet  jelly- 
bag;  drain,  but  do  not  squeeze  bag.  Measure  the  juice 
and  measure  the  amount  of  sugar  to  be  used  according 
to  the  pectin  test.  Boil  the  juice  a  few  minutes;  add 
the  sugar,  which  has  been  warmed  by  placing  in  the  oven ; 
boil  gently  until  the  jelly  coats  the  spoon  or  until  a  drop 
"  jells  "  when  dropped  on  a  cold  saucer.  Pour  into  hot 
sterilized  glasses. 

What  can  you  make  from  the  pulp  and  skins  in  the  bag  ? 

GRAPE  JELLY 

Choose  grapes  that  are  not  over-ripe ;  wash  and  pull 
from  stems ;  place  in  stew-kettle ;  add  one  cup  of  water 
for  each  four  quarts  of  grapes.  Cook  until  the  grape  skins 
burst  and  the  fruit  is  thoroughly  softened ;  place  in  wet 
jelly-bag  to  drain.  What  proportion  of  sugar  should  be 
used  ?  Follow  directions  given  under  Crab  Apple  Jelly. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  What  two  substances  must  fruit  contain  before  good  jelly 
can  be  made  from  it? 

2.  Give  the  steps  in  jelly-making. 

3.  How  should  a  jelly-glass  be  sterilized? 

4.  How  should  jelly  be  cared  for  after  it  is  cooled? 

5.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  good  jelly? 


166  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

CHRISTMAS  LESSONS 

Home-made  candy,  packed  attractively  in  pretty 
boxes  or  baskets,  makes  a  good  Christmas  gift. 

Small  children  are  better  without  candy,  but  it 
may  be  used  by  older  persons  if  it  is  eaten  in  reason- 
able amounts.  Candy  is  more  easily  digested  at 
the  end  of  a  meal  than  between  meals.  Candy 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  sugar,  and  sugar 
when  eaten  alone  is  irritating  to  the  digestive 
organs.  A  great  deal  of  sugar  is  found  in  some 
dried  fruits,  such  as  raisins,  dates  and  figs,  and 
in  this  form  sugar  is  better  for  the  small  child  than 
in  candy. 

Loaf,  granulated  and  powdered  are  the  forms  in 
which  sugar  is  sold.  Sugar  is  made  either  from 
sugar  cane  or  sugar  beets.  The  juice  which  is 
extracted  goes  through  many  processes  before  the 
sugar  is  ready  for  the  market. 

When  making  candies  that  are  to  be  of  a  creamy 
consistency,  it  is  better  to  use  part  glucose  instead 
of  all  granulated  sugar.  Commercial  glucose  is  a  syrup 
that  does  not  crystallize,  and  therefore  helps  to  keep 
the  candy  smooth  and  creamy.  Commercial  glucose 
is  manufactured  by  boiling  cornstarch  with  an  acid, 
and  is  usually  sold  in  tin  containers. 

By  boiling  candy  mixtures  to  different  tempera- 
tures, different  types  of  syrup  may  be  made.  It 
is  always  best  to  use  a  candy  thermometer  in  order 
to  know  when  the  syrup  is  cooked  enough  but  not 
too  much.  When  making  fudge,  panocha  and  fon- 
dant, the  candy  should  be  cooked  until  it  reaches 
the  "soft-ball  stage",  236°  F. ;  for  chocolate  cara- 
mels, cook  to  the  "hard-ball  stage",  254°  F.;  for 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  167 

butterscotch,  popcorn  balls  and  molasses  taffy,  cook 
to  the  "crack  stage ",  270°  F. 

Caramelized  sugar  is  sugar  that  has  been  heated 
without  moisture  until  it  melts  and  becomes  a  brown 
syrup.  When  this  is  poured  over  peanuts  it  is 
known  as  " peanut  brittle."  Caramelized  sugar  is 
used  also  for  flavoring  custards  and  cake  icings, 
and  in  sauces. 

Other  materials  that  may  be  used  in  cookery  to 
take  the  place  of  sugar  are  honey,  maple  sugar  and 
syrups  of  different  kinds. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
CANDIES 
FONDANT 

2  c.  granulated  sugar  |  c.  cold  water 

Mix  the  sugar  and  water,  place  in  saucepan  over  the 
fire  and  stir  until  sugar  is  dissolved.  Allow  the  syrup  to 
boil  gently  until  it  reaches  the  "  soft-ball  "  stage.  Turn 
into  a  greased  platter  and  let  stand  until  a  thin  film  forms 
on  the  top,  then  beat  with  a  wooden  spoon  until  it  be- 
comes creamy  and  white.  Wash  the  hands  in  cold  water 
and  knead  the  fondant.  Wrap  the  fondant  in  oiled  paper 
and  let  it  stand  in  the  ice-box  a  few  hours,  or  longer  if 
desired.  It  is  then  in  good  condition  for  making  into 
various  kinds  of  candy. 

Use  in  the  following  ways  : 

1.  Add  chopped  English  walnut  meats  to  some  of  the 
fondant,  flavor  with  vanilla,  mold  into  balls. 

2.  Cover  almonds  with  flavored  fondant. 

3.  Remove   the  seeds  from  dates  and  refill  with  the 
flavored  fondant. 

4.  With  a  toothpick,  take  up  a  tiny  bit  of  coloring  ma- 
terial and  add  to  fondant.     Knead  until  thoroughly  mixed, 
add  any  flavoring  preferred,  mold  into  shape  desired. 


168  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

PEANUT   BRITTLE 

1  c.  sugar  |  c.  peanuts 

Place  sugar  in  frying-pan  over  fire  and  stir  until  the 
sugar  is  melted  and  the  syrup  is  a  light  brown  color.  Add 
peanuts  and  pour  immediately  into  a  buttered  pan  or 
plate.  Mark  into  squares  when  the  brittle  is  slightly 
cooled. 

PANOCHA 

1  c.  brown  sugar  1  tbsp.  butter 

1  c.  granulated  sugar  1  c.  nut  meats 

\  c.  milk  1  tsp.  vanilla 

TT¥  tsp.  salt 

Mix  sugar,  milk  and  salt.  Boil  until  it  reaches  the 
"  soft-ball  "  stage  ;  add  butter,  vanilla  and  chopped  nuts ; 
cool  slightly,  beat  until  thick,  spread  on  buttered  pan. 
Mark  into  squares  before  it  is  too  hard  to  cut  easily. 

PARISIAN    SWEETS 

1  c.  figs  1  c.  dates  1  c.  nuts 

Clean  dates  and  figs,  and  grind  the  three  ingredients 
through  food-grinder.  If  they  are  mixed  before  grinding 
they  blend  more  easily.  Place  on  bread-board  dredged 
with  powdered  sugar,  knead  thoroughly,  press  out  into 
sheets  about  one  half  inch  thick.  Cut  into  squares ;  roll 
each  square  in  powdered  sugar. 

SALTED   ALMONDS 

Use  Jordan  almonds  if  possible.  Blanch  by  letting 
them  stand  in  boiling  water  until  the  skin  is  loosened. 
Remove  the  skins,  being  careful  not  to  break  the  almonds 
apart  when  handling  them.  Place  olive  oil  in  a  frying- 
pan  and  when  it  is  hot  add  the  nuts ;  stir  over  fire  until 
nuts  are  a  light  brown  color ;  remove  from  fat  and  drain 
on  paper.  Sprinkle  with  salt. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  169 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  When  should  candy  be  eaten?     Why? 

2.  What  may  be  substituted  for  candy"  when  a  small  child 
wants  sweets  ? 

3.  From  what  is  sugar  made  ? 

4.  In  what  forms  may  sugar  be  purchased  ? 

5.  What  is  the  price  per  pound  of  granulated  sugar?    of 
powdered  sugar?  of  lump  or  loaf  sugar? 

6.  How  is  loaf  sugar  used  ? 

7.  Why  is  it  better  to  use  a  thermometer  when  making 
candy? 

8.  To  what  temperature  should  a  syrup  be  cooked  for  the 
"soft-ball"  stage?  "hard-ball"  stage?  "crack"  stage? 

9.  Give  examples  of  candies  with  which  each  of  these  tem- 
peratures should  be  used. 

10.   What  is  caramelized  sugar? 


THE  CARE  OF  THE  HOUSE 

The  housekeeper  who  does  her  work  most  easily 
follows  a  plan  or  schedule.  Such  a  schedule  will  need 
to  be  varied  often,  because  of  interruptions  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  but  having  the  plan  helps  to  prevent 
friction,  saves  time  and  energy,  and  makes  possible 
some  time  that  can  be  used  for  recreation.  There  is 
certain  work,  such  as  making  beds,  planning  and 
cooking  meals,  that  must  be  done  every  day  and  is 
called  " daily  tasks"  ;  there  are  certain  other  duties, 
such  as  the  laundry  work,  that  come  once  a  week 
and  are  called  "  weekly  tasks  " ;  and  there  is  work 
that  does  not  come  so  frequently,  such  as  canning 
fruit,  which  is  called  the  "  occasional  tasks. " 

When  making  a  schedule,  first  make  a  plan  for  the 
daily  tasks,  allowing  time  that  can  be  used  for  the 
weekly  and  occasional  tasks.  The  arrangement  of 
the  work  will  depend  upon  the  location  of  the  home, 


170  FOODS  AND   COOKERY 

the  type  of  family,  the  standard  of  living,  and 
whether  household  helpers  are  employed.  The  be- 
ginning housekeeper  will  have  to  experiment  with 
her  work  until  she  finds  the  best  arrangement  of 
tasks. 

Good  equipment,  including  labor-saving  devices 
for  housework,  will  save  the  housekeeper  a  great 
deal  of  time  and  energy.  Good  equipment  for  cleaning 
should  include  good  brooms,  dust  mops,  a  wet  mop 
with  wringer,  dust  cloths,  polishing  cloths,  cleaning 
powders,  soaps,  brushes,  plenty  of  clean  cloths, 
and  a  suction-sweeper  if  there  are  many  large  rugs 
or  carpets  to  keep  in  order.  A  cupboard  or  closet 
in  which  all  this  equipment  may  be  kept  is  a  great 
convenience. 

The  daily  cleaning  will  consist  of  using  the  dust 
mop  on  hard- wood  or  painted  floors ;  perhaps  it  will 
be  necessary  to  run  the  sweeper  over  some  of  the 
rugs,  and  the  furnishings  in  the  much  used  rooms 
will  need  dusting.  Every  room  in  constant  use 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  once  a  week.  Dust 
the  small  articles  and  remove  them  from  the  room ; 
if  the  windows  are  to  be  washed,  take  down  the 
curtains  and  remove  them  from  the  room  for  dusting ; 
open  the  windows ;  wipe  down  the  walls  with  a  broom 
that  is  covered  with  a  clean  bag  or  cloth ;  use  the 
suction-sweeper  on  the  rugs,  or  a  dampened  broom 
if  no  sweeper  is  available ;  clean  the  floor  with  the 
dust  mop ;  wipe  the  windows,  or  wash  them  if  nec- 
essary; dust  all  the  woodwork  and  furniture;  re- 
hang  the  draperies  and  replace  the  small  articles. 

When  cleaning  a  bedroom,  first  remove  all  the 
bed-clothing  from  the  room.  Occasionally  the  mat- 
tress may  be  taken  out,  aired  and  sunned.  The 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  171 

mattress  may  be  cleaned  regularly  with  the  suction- 
sweeper  which  has  special  apparatus  for  such  pur- 
poses. If  not  taken  out,  the  mattress  should  be 
covered  with  papers  or  a  sheet  while  the  room  is 
being  cleaned. 

The  bathroom  needs  some  cleaning  every  day. 
Scour  the  washstand  and  tub  with  a  mild  cleaning 
powder ;  rinse  thoroughly  with  clean  water.  Clean 
the  faucets  (directions  are  given  in  the  section  on 
dishwashing).  Use  a  brush  made  for  the  purpose 
to  clean  the  trap  in  the  closet ;  wash  off  the  outside 
of  the  closet  and  water  tank.  Use  the  dust  mop  on 
a  hard-wood  floor;  a  floor  covered  with  linoleum 
should  be  mopped  with  clean  water  at  least  once  a 
week. 

Porches  usually  need  sweeping  every  day,  and 
must  be  scrubbed  when  necessary  and  the  weather 
permits. 

The  equipment  used  in  cleaning  should  itself  be 
cleaned  before  it  is  replaced  in  the  closet.  Dry  the 
wet  mop  thoroughly  before  hanging  it  away.  Dust 
cloths  must  not  be  used  when  soiled ;  "oil  dusters" 
are  a  good  type  to  buy,  because  they  catch  and  hold 
the  dust.  Never  use  a  feather  duster,  because  the 
dust  it  brushes  off  one  place  lodges  on  another. 

The  modern  house,  when  cleaned  carefully  every 
week,  closets  cleaned  when  necessary,  and  curtains 
washed  when  soiled,  does  not  require  the  general 
spring  or  fall  " house-cleaning"  so  familiar  to  every- 
one.. 

HOME  PROBLEMS 

Arrange  a  plan  for  the  work  to  be  done  in  your 
home  every  day.  Probably  your  mother  already 


172  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

has  such  a  plan  and  will  tell  you  which  task  she  does 
first,  second,  etc. 

What  part  of  the  work  do  you  perform?  At  what 
time  in  the  day  do  you  do  it  ?  What  are  the  weekly 
tasks  done  in  your  home?  Do  you  help  with  any 
of  them  ?  How  much  time  every  week  do  you  spend 
on  these  tasks? 

Make  a  list  of  work  that  you  consider  "  occasional 
tasks." 

Clean  one  room  at  home  and  write  a  report  telling 
just  how  you  did  the  work. 

THE   CARE   OF  THE  HOUSE    (Continued) 

One  of  the  " occasional  tasks"  to  be  done  in  every 
home  is  the  cleaning  and  putting  in  order  of  the 
closets.  This  should  be  done  as  often  as  is  necessary. 
Clothing  that  has  been  discarded  should  be  removed 
and  given,  either  to  some  person  who  can  use  it,  or  to 
a  charitable  organization,  or  put  in  the  " rag-bag" 
to  be  sold  to  the  junk  dealer.  Soiled  clothing  should 
not  be  allowed  to  hang  in  closets  for  long  periods. 

To  clean  the  clothes  closet :  remove  all  clothing ; 
assort  and  remove  the  articles  that  are  not  to  be  put 
back ;  take  out  all  boxes,  bags  and  shoes ;  wash  the 
shelves  with  warm  water  and  wipe  dry ;  wash  the 
inside  of  drawers  in  the  same  way ;  wipe  floor,  if 
not  waxed,  with  a  damp  cloth ;  use  an  oil  duster  if 
the  floor  is  waxed ;  air  the  closet  thoroughly ;  dust 
and  replace  boxes ;  hang  clothing,  bags  and  cases. 

Winter  clothing,  which  is  to  be  put  away  for  the 
summer  after  being  thoroughly  brushed,  or  perhaps 
cleaned,  may  be  placed  in  moth-proof  cedar  bags, 
chests,  or  drawers.  Clothing,  blankets,  or  rugs  that 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY 


173 


are  to  be  put  away  must  be  clean  and  may  be  wrapped 
in  papers  to  keep  out  the  dust.  When  articles  are 
stored  in  this  way,  it  is  wise  to  inspect  them  often 
to  be  sure  that  they  are  free  from  moths. 

Boxes  and  bags  can  be  labeled  in  such  a  way  that 
articles  may  be  easily  found.     A  list  showing  where 


PASTEBOARD  HOUSE,  WITH  FURNISHINGS 

In  process  of  construction  by  the  Home  Economics  class  in  Columbia 
City,  Indiana. 

each  article  is  stored  is  a  convenient  record.  This  list 
might  be  put  on  cards  that  fit  into  a  card-index  box 
and  thus  be  among  the  records  that  every  house- 
keeper would  find  useful.  Other  records  kept  in 
the  box  might  be :  the  sizes  of  garments  worn  by 
each  member  of  the  family ;  clippings  from  papers 
giving  household  hints,  garden  hints,  or  sugges- 


174  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

tions  for  social  affairs ;  addresses  of  persons  or 
firms  to  whom  one  writes  in  a  business  or  social 
way.  Every  housekeeper  will  make  her  own  list  of 
desirable  records.  The  use  of  such  a  card  file 
saves  the  loss  of  time  and  energy  in  "  looking  for 
things." 

Drawers  in  dressers,  chiffoniers  and  dressing-tables 
should  be  kept  in  order  at  all  times,  but  it  is  a  wise 
plan  to  remove  everything  from  the  drawers  once 
a  month  and  wipe  out  with  a  damp  cloth.  If  the 
bottom  of  the  drawer  is  not  well  finished,  it  may 
be  covered  with  paper  before  the  articles  are  re- 
placed. 

Curtains  and  draperies  should  be  cleaned  when- 
ever they  need  to  be.  In  cities  where  soft  coal  is 
used,  it  is  often  necessary  to  clean  white  curtains 
every  month.  Wool  and  silk  draperies  must  be 
dry-cleaned  at  home  or  sent  to  a  cleaning  establish- 
ment often  enough  to  keep  them  in  a  sanitary  con- 
dition. White  curtains  of  net  or  lace  should  not 
be  ironed,  but  should  be  dried  on  curtain  stretchers 
in  order  that  they  may  not  lose  their  shape.  Scrim, 
voile  and  marquisette  curtains  look  better  when 
ironed.  Muslin,  Swiss,  or  lawn  curtains  should 
always  be  ironed.  When  washing  any  open- weave 
material,  such  as  scrim,  it  is  better  to  squeeze 
it  between  the  hands  than  to  rub  it.  Curtains 
should  be  well  shaken  and  then  soaked  in  warm 
soapsuds,  washed  in  hot  soapsuds,  rinsed  thoroughly 
in  several  waters,  and  if  white  must  be  put  through 
bluing  water ;  they  may  be  slightly  starched  if 
desired.  When  curtains  are  to  be  dried  and  ironed, 
hang  them,  doubled  lengthwise,  with  the  lengthwise 
fold  over  the  clothesline;  never  hang  them  by  the 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  175 

corners ;  dampen  and  fold  carefully ;  iron  crosswise 
of  the  curtain,  being  careful  not  to  stretch  the  edges 
in  any  way. 

There  are  many  tasks  about  the  home  that  can  be 
performed  by  the  daughter  to  assist  the  mother, 
and  girls  who  study  Home  Economics  should  do  such 
work  well.  Suggested  work  for  the  girl  would  in- 
clude :  caring  for  her  bedroom,  putting  away  her 
clothing,  collecting  her  clothing  for  the  laundry, 
polishing  the  silver,  dusting,  serving  a  meal  and 
sometimes  preparing  a  meal,  washing  dishes,  mend- 
ing, and  helping  with  the  care  of  a  small  child. 

Housekeeping  is  a  very  interesting  business,  and 
every  girl  wants  to  be  a  good  housekeeper  —  feed- 
ing, clothing  and  housing  her  family  well.  In  ad- 
dition she  wishes  to  be  a  good  home-maker,  making 
the  house  a  happy,  inspiring  place  for  children  to 
develop  in  and  for  older  people  to  enjoy.  She  is  a 
good  home-maker  when  she  is  intelligent,  alert, 
happy  and  active ;  when  she  does  her  housework 
so  efficiently  that  she  has  time  to  be  interested  in 
church,  social  and  civic  affairs,  and  to  help  make 
good  conditions  in  her  community. 

HOME   PROBLEMS   AND    QUESTIONS 

To  what  organizations  in  the  community  do  women 
belong  ? 

What  is  the  purpose  of  each  organization  ? 

What  organizations  for  girls  are  there  in  your 
community  ? 

Collect  pictures  of  furnishings  you  would  like  to 
have  in  your  bedroom.  Furniture  catalogues  and 
advertisements  in  magazines  and  newspapers  will 


176  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

be  helpful  for  this.  Discuss  in  class  the  furnishings 
of  the  bedroom.  Discuss  the  care  of  the  bedroom. 
A  booklet  on  "My  Bedroom"  might  be  made. 

FOOD  FOR  THE   SICK 

When  serious  illness  occurs  in  the  family  the 
patient  is  often  taken  to  a  hospital  for  treatment 
because  there  conditions  are  such  that  the  best  of 
equipment  is  available,  with  trained  workers  to 
look  after  the  welfare  of  the  patient.  There  are, 
however,  many  cases  of  illness  not  serious  enough 
to  make  it  necessary  to  send  the  patient  to  the  hos- 
pital, yet  in  which  the  patient  must  stay  in  bed 
and  have  good  care.  In  such  cases  some  one  in  the 
home  must  do  the  nursing  and  should  have  some 
knowledge  of  such  work. 

One  of  the  most  important  things  for  the  home 
nurse  to  know  is  how  to  prepare  and  serve  the  food 
which  the  patient  needs.  Food  is  especially  im- 
portant, because  a  poorly  nourished  body  cannot 
resist  nor  overcome  disease,  and  in  many  cases 
regulating  the  diet  is  the  main  treatment.  For 
special  diet  of  this  sort,  the  home  nurse  will  follow 
carefully  the  doctor's  instructions  regarding  kind, 
amount  and  preparation  of  food. 

No  one  in  bed  can  digest  the  kind  or  quantity  of 
food  that  the  person  can  who  is  taking  exercise. 
Patients  often  are  given  too  much  food  while  in  bed ; 
in  other  instances  the  patient  does  not  get  enough 
food. 

If  the  invalid's  appetite  is  poor,  perhaps  it  can  be 
stimulated  by  serving  fruit  juice,  by  giving  meat 
broth,  or  by  making  the  tray  extremely  attractive. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY 


177 


178  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

To  make  the  invalid's  tray  attractive  there  are  several 
points  to  remember : 

1.  Do  not  have  too  great  a  variety  of  foods  on 
the  tray  at  one  time. 

2.  Do  not  serve  large  portions  of  food. 


INVALID'S  TRAY,  WELL  ARRANGED 

3.  Have  all  foods  well  cooked  and  served  in  a 
neat  way. 

4.  Use   attractive   dishes   and   linen   that   is 
absolutely  clean. 

5.  A  flower  on  the  tray  makes  it  more  at- 
tractive.    It  may  be  laid  on  the  tray  or  placed  in 
a  small  vase  which  is  set  on  it. 

6.  Sometimes  serving  the  meal  as  two  courses 
will  make  it  more  appetizing  to  the  patient. 

7.  Used  dishes  and  trays  should  be  removed 
from  the  room  as  soon  as  the  patient  is  done  with 
them. 


FOODS  AND   COOKERY  179 

8.  The  tray  used  for  serving  the  meal  should 
be  large  enough,  but  not  so  large  that  it  is  hard  to 
handle.     A  rectangular  tray  is  more  convenient 
than  a  round  one. 

9.  The  temperature  of  the  food  served  must 
be  watched  carefully.     As  a  rule  hot  foods  should 
be  served  hot  and  cold  foods  served  cold,  but  under 
certain  conditions  the  rule  may  have  to  be  modified. 

10.  Never  ask  a  sick  person  what  kind  of  food  is 
desired.  When  the  food  is  a  " surprise"  it  some- 
times stimulates  the  appetite. 

Dietaries  for  invalids  may  be  classified  in  the 
following  way : 

1.  Liquid,  including  broths,  beef  extract,  beef 
tea,  milk,  gruels,  eggnog,  cream  soups,  cocoa,  etc. 

2.  Soft,  including  soft-cooked  eggs,  milk  toast, 
junket,  cooked  custards,  jellies,  etc. 

3.  Soft  solid,  including    eggs,    creamed   toast, 
asparagus,  baked  custards,  tender  chicken,  oysters, 
creamed  sweetbreads,  etc. 

4.  Special  diet,  one  ordered  by  a  physician  for  a 
particular  case. 

In  many  cases  of  illness  it  is  well  to  consult  the 
physician  regarding  the  type  of  diet  that  the  patient 
should  be  given.  In  the  case  of  high  temperatures, 
it  is  wise  to  give  plenty  of  water  with  a  liquid  diet ; 
in  cases  of  bad  colds,  grippe,  or  similar  diseases,  a 
soft  diet  may  be  used ;  in  cases  of  constipation,  use 
coarse  foods  which  contain  large  quantities  of  cellu- 
lose, such  as  Graham  bread,  vegetables,  fruits  and 
cereals.  The  fruits  are  especially  valuable  in  the 
treatment  of  constipation  because  of  the  organic 
acids  they  contain.  Any  one  troubled  with  consti- 


180  FOODS  AND  COOKERY 

pation  should  eat  meals  regularly,  take  plenty  of 
exercise,  drink  plenty  of  water  and  should  be 
regular  in  regard  to  the  calls  of  nature. 

The  convalescent  patient  should  have  his  or  her 
requests  for  certain  foods  gratified  whenever  the 
food  is  suitable  and  the  requests  reasonable. 

HOME  PROBLEMS  AND  QUESTIONS 

Read  in  books  and  bulletins  on  nursing  about  the 
proper  kind  of  sick-room.  Make  a  drawing  showing 
how  the  room  should  be  arranged. 

What  type  of  clothing  should  a  home  nurse  wear  ? 
Why? 

Perhaps  a  nurse  in  the  neighborhood  can  give 
demonstrations  on  making  the  patient's  bed,  giving 
the  patient's  bath,  and  on  first  aid. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
INVALID    COOKERY 

JUNKET 

f  c.  milk  I  junket  tablet 

1  tbsp.  sugar  1  tsp.  cold  water 

|  tsp.  vanilla  Few  grains  salt 

Dissolve  junket  tablet  in  the  cold  water.  Heat  milk 
in  top  part  of  double-boiler,  add  sugar,  salt,  flavoring  and 
dissolved  junket  tablet.  Pour  quickly  into  small  molds, 
let  stand  in  a  warm  place  until  set,  then  put  in  a  cold  place 
to  chill.  Remove  from  molds  and  serve  with  or  without 
sugar  and  cream.  Sugar  may  be  omitted  if  desired. 

EGGNOG 

1  egg  If  tbsp.  fruit  juice  or 

£  tbsp.  sugar  %  tsp.  vanilla 

Few  grains  salt  f  c.  cold  milk 


FOODS  AND  COOKERY  181 

Beat  egg  slightly ;  add  sugar,  salt  and  fruit  juice  slowly  ; 
and  add  the  milk  gradually.  Strain  and  serve.  Sugar 
may  be  omitted  if  the  fruit  juice  is  sweetened. 

OATMEAL   GRUEL 

\  c.  rolled  oats  £  tsp.  salt 

1^  c.  boiling  water  Milk  or  cream 

Add  oats,  mixed  with  salt,  to  boiling  water ;  let  boil  two 
minutes,  then  cook  in  double-boiler  one  hour.  Strain, 
bring  to  boiling-point,  and  add  milk  or  cream  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  case. 

REVIEW   QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  points  that  are  essential  to  remember  when  pre- 
paring an  invalid's  tray. 

2.  Into  what  classes  may  diets  for  invalids  be  divided  ? 

3.  Make  a  day's  menu  for  a  patient  who  is  in  bed  with  a  bad 
cold.    What  type  of  diet  is  this  ? 

4.  What  foods  should  be  eaten  when  one  is  troubled  with 
constipation? 

5.  State  several  ways  in  which  milk  may  be  served  to  invalids 
living  on  a  liquid  diet. 

6.  State  several  ways  in  which  egg  may  be  served  to  an  invalid 
living  on  a  soft  diet. 

7.  Why  are  milk  and  eggs  important  foods  to  use  in  invalid 
cookery? 

8.  Should  a  large  amount  of  meat  be  used  in  an  invalid's  diet  ? 
Why?     Name  some  kinds  to  serve  and  ways  of  preparing  them 
for  an  invalid  on  a  soft-solid  diet. 

9.  Where  can  junket  tablets  be  purchased? 


INDEX 


AIR  IN  REFRIGERATOR,  circulation 

of,  25 

Almonds,  salted,  168 
Apple,  baked,  30 
Apple  sauce,  39 
Artificial  ice,  31 

BACON,  broiled,  62 
Baker's  bread,  52-53 
Baking,  5 

bread,  50-52 
Baking  powder,  88-89 
Baking-powder  biscuits,  90 
Baking  soda,  89 
Banana  salad,  83 
Batter  cakes,  56 
Beans,  baked,  78 
Beef,  casserole  of,  122 

creamed  dried,  63 

cuts  of,  123-126 

pan-broiled  steak,  122 

pot  roast,  128 

roast,  122 

stew,  129 

stock,  131 

Swiss  steak,  128 
Beef  and  rice  croquettes,  105 
Beverages,  30-35 
Blanc  mange,  118 
Boiling,  5 
Braising,  5 
Bread,  46-56 

crumbs,  54,  75 

nut,  98 

quick,  87-90 

"Bread  and  Bread-making  in  the 
Home  ",53 


Bread-mixer,  50,  51 

Breakfast,  cereals  for,  45^46 
dishes  for,  62, ,63,  65,  69 
eggs  for,  58-60 
planning  the,  27-29 
table  of  food  Calories  for, 
147 

Broiling,  4 

Butter,  value  as  food,  148 

CAKE,  91-94 

date,  98-99 

sponge,  94 

standard,  93 
Cake-making,  92-93 
Cake-mixer,  92 
Calorie,  143-147,  150-153 
Calorimeters,  144-145 
Candies,  fondant,  167 

panocha,  168 

Parisian  sweets,  168 

peanut  brittle,  168 
Candy,  166-168 
Canned  fruits,  37,  157-162 
Canning,  157-162 
Can-rubbers,  159 
Caramel  syrup,  43 
Caramelized  sugar,  167 
Carbohydrates,  8 
Care,  of  the  house,  169-176 
Carrots  and  peas,  110-111 
Cereals,  43^46 
Certified  milk,  41 
Cheese,  73-75 

souffle1,  74 

strata,  75 
"Chemical   Composition    of 


183 


184 


INDEX 


American  Food  Materials, 
The  ",  109,  146-147 
Chicken,  133-134,  135-137 

stewed,  136 

Child,  proper  food  for,  148 
China,  selection  of,  61 
Christmas  lessons,  166-168 
Cleaning,  household,  170-172 
Cleanliness,  at  table,  96-97 

in  the  kitchen,  11-13 

when  cooking,  7 
Closets,  cleaning,  172 
Clothing,  care  of,  172-173 
Coal  stove,  15,  16,  17 
Cocoa,  32,  35 
Coffee,  32-33,  34 
Cold-pack    method    of    canning, 

157-161 

Cold  storage,  153-154 
Combination  service,  67 
Compressed  yeast,  48 
Condensed  milk,  41 
Conserve,  grape,  155-156 
Conveniences,  in  kitchen,  13 
Cook  book,  card-file,  4 
Cooked  dressing,  82 
Cookers,  for  ca-nning,  158 
Cookery,  processes  used  in,  3-6 
Cookies,  91 

Cooking,  importance  of  following 
directions  in,  5 

utensils,  17-18 
Corn,  scalloped,  110 
Corn  bread,  Southern  spoon,  90 
Corn  soup,  cream  of,  71-72 
Cornstarch,  116 

"Cover",  in  table  service,  65-67 
Crab  apple  jelly,  165 
Cream,  40 
Cream     of     wheat    with    dates, 

45-46 

Cream  toast,  42 
Croquettes,  104-105 
Croutons,  72 
Custard,  baked,  99 


DATE,  cakes,  98-99 

pudding,  86 
Desserts,  138-142 

frozen,  149 

Diet,  proper,  27-29,  147-148 
Dietaries  for  the  sick,  179 
Dining  room,  the,  60-69 
Dinner,  menu  for,  129,  143 

plan  for,  101-103 

planning  the,  139-140 
Directions  in  cooking,  importance 

of  following,  5 
Dishwashing,  21-24 
Draperies,  care  of,  174 

for  dining  room,  60,  62 
Dress,  suitable  for  cooking,  6 
Dressing,  salad,  80,  81-82 
Dried  fruits,  37,  84-86 
Dried  legumes,  77-78 
Drying,  154 

EGGNOG,  180-181 
Eggs,  56-60 

fried  or  sauted,  137 

hard-cooked,  58 

poached,  58 

scrambled,  59 

soft-cooked,  58 
Electric  stove,  16,  17 
English  service,  67 
Evaporated  milk,  41 

FAT,  8 

Fireless  cooker,  18-21 
Fireless  gas  range,  18 
Fish,  134-135,  137 
Floor,  dining  room,  60 

kitchen,  11 
Flour,  46-47 

pastry,  91 
Fondant,  167 
Food,  economy  in  using,  70-71 

for  the  sick,  176-181 

in  daily  meals,  proportions  of, 
143-149 


INDEX 


185 


Food  —  Continued 

100-Calorie  portions  of  cooked, 
153 

100-Calorie    portions    of    un- 
cooked, 152 

principles,  7-8 

some  points  about,  7-8 

value  of  eggs  as,  57-58 

value  of  milk  as,  39HU 
Foods,    preservation    of,     153- 

165 

Foodstuffs,  five  groups  of,  7-8 
Freezing  mixture,  139 
French  dressing,  81 
Fricasseeing,  5 
Frosting,  boiled,  94 
Frozen  desserts,  139 
Fruit,  for  breakfast,  29-30 

oranges,  29 

preservation  of,  155-165 
Fruits,  37-39 

dried,  84-86 
Frying,  5 
Fuel,  16 
Furniture,  dining-room,  61,  62 

GAME,  133-134 
Garbage-can,  26 
Gas  burner,  cleaning,  17 
Gas  range,  15-18 
Gelatine,  130-132 
Glucose,  166 
Gluten,  47 
Graham  flour,  47 
Grape,  conserve,  155-156 

jelly,  165 

juice,  156 
Grapefruit,  38 
Gruel,  oatmeal,  181 

HAM  AND  EGGS,  scalloped,  105 
Hard-cooked  eggs,  58 
"Home-made    Fireless    Cookers 

and  their  Use  ",  21 
Hominy,  116 


House,  care  of  the,  169-176 
Housekeeping,  175 

ICE,  31 

artificial,  31 
Ice-box,  13 
Ice  cream,  freezing,  139 

vanilla,  149 
Ices,  lemon,  150 
Invalid  cookery,  176-181 
Ironing-board,  13 

JARS,  testing  preserve,  160 

types  of  preserve,  158-159 
Jelly-bag,  164 
Jelly,  lemon,  132-133 
Jelly-making,  162-165 
Juice  for  jelly,  testing,  163-164, 

165 
Junket,  180 

KITCHEN,  10-13 

arrangement  of,  12 

floor  of,  11 
Knives,  18 

LAMB,  126 

cuts  of,  126 

"Left-over"  dishes,  103-105 
"Left-overs,"  70-71 
Legumes,  dried,  77-78 
Lemon,  ices,  150 

peel,  163 
Liquid  yeast,  49 
Lunch,  the  school,  95-100 
Luncheon,  menu  for,  100 

plan  for,  70-71 

MACARONI,  115-116 

and  cheese,  118 
Manners,  table,  63-65 
Marguerites,  36 
Marmalades,  155 

orange,  155 
Mayonnaise  dressing,  81-82 


186 


INDEX 


Meals,  for  the  family,  143-149 

proper  planning  of,  8 
Measurements  in  cooking,  9-10 
Meat,  119-129 

charts,  124,  125,  126,  127 

for  breakfast,  62-63 

substitutes  for,  73-74,  76-77 
Menu,  dessert  in  the,  138-139 

for  breakfast,  27-29,  65-69 

for  dinner,  129,  143 

for  luncheon,  84,  100 

for  supper,  84,  100 
Milk,  39-42 

Mineral  matter  in  milk,  40 
Minerals,  8 

Mousse,  chocolate,  150 
Muffins,  90 

NUT  AND  CHEESE  LOAF,  78 

Nut  bread,  98 
Nuts,  76-77 

OATMEAL  GRUEL,  181 
Oats,  rolled,  21 
Omelette,  puffy,  59-60 
Onions,  creamed,   111 
Open-kettle  method  of  canning, 

157 

Orangeade,  16 
Orange,  marmalade,  155 

peel,  163 
Oranges,  29 
Oysters,  134-135 

scalloped,  136-137 

PAN-BROILING,  5 
Panocha,  168 
Parisian  sweets,  168 
Parker  House  rolls,  55-56 
Pasteurized  milk,  41 
Pastry,  plain,  140-141 
Peaches,  sweet  pickled,  156 
Peanut  brittle,  168 
Pears,  canning,  160 
Pea  sandwiches,  79 


Peppers,  baked  stuffed,  10 
Personal  appearance,  at  table,  63 

when  cooking,  6-7 
Pie,  138-139 
Poached  eggs,  58 
Pork,  126-127 

cuts  of,  127 
Potato,  111-114 

baked  stuffed,  113 

croquettes,  105 

French  fried,  114 

mashed,  26 

riced,  26 

Poultry,  133-134,  135-137 
Preservatives,  154-155 
Primitive  cooking,  3-4 
Protein,  8 

in  eggs,  57 

in  milk,  40 
Prune  whip,  86 
Pudding,  sauce,  142 

steamed,  141-142 

QUICK  BREAD,  87-90 

RECIPES,  apple  sauce,  39 
baked  apple,  30 
baked  beans,  78 
baked  custard,  99 
baked  squash,  1 10 
baked  stuffed  peppers,  10 
baked  stuffed  potatoes,  113 
baking-powder  biscuits,  90 
banana  salad,  83 
batter  cakes,  56 
beef  and  rice  croquettes,  105 
beef  stew,  129 
beef  stock,  131 
blanc  mange,  118 
boiled  frosting,  94 
bread,  49-50 
bread  crumbs,  75 
broiled  bacon,  62 
candied  sweet  potatoes,  113 
canning  pears,  160 


INDEX 


187 


Recipes  —  Continued 
canning  tomatoes,  161 
caramel  syrup,  43 
carrots  and  peas,  110-111 
casserole  of  beef,  122 
cheese  souffle",  74 
cheese  strata,  75 
chocolate  mousse,  150 
cocoa,  32 
coffee,  32-33 
cooked  dressing,  82 
crab  apple  jelly,  165 
creamed  dried  beef,  63 
creamed  onions,  111 
cream  of  corn  soup,  71-72 
cream  of  tomato  soup,  71 
cream    of    wheat  with  dates, 

45-46 

cream  toast,  42 
croquettes,  104-105 
croutons,  72 
date  cakes,  98-99 
date  pudding,  86 
eggnog,  180-181 
fondant,  167 
French  dressing,  81 
French  fried  potatoes,  114 
French  toast,  43 
fried  or  sauted  eggs,  137 
grape  conserve,  155-156 
grape  jelly,   165 
grape  juice,  156 
hard-cooked  eggs,  58 
hard  sauce,  142 
junket,  180 
lemon  ice,  150 
lemon  jelly,  132-133 
macaroni  and  cheese,  118 
marguerites,  36 
marmalades,  155 
mashed  potatoes,  26 
mayonnaise  dressing,  81-  82 
muffins,  90 

nut  and  cheese  loaf,  78 
nut  bread,  98 


Recipes  —  Continued 
oatmeal  gruel,  181 
orangeade,  16 
orange  marmalade,  155 
pan-broiled  steak,  122 
panocha,  168 
Parisian  sweets,  168 
Parker  House  rolls,  55-56 
peanut  brittle,  168 
pea  sandwiches,  79 
perfection  salad,  132 
plain  pastry,  140-141 
poached  eggs,  58 
potato  croquettes,  105 
pot  roast,  128 
prune  whip,  86 
pudding  sauce,  142 
puffy  omelette,  59-60 
rice,  118-119 
riced  potatoes,  26 
roast  beef,  122 
rolled  oats,  21 
rolls,  54 

salmon  croquettes,  105 
salmon  salad,  83 
salted  almonds,  168 
sandwiches,  36-37 
scalloped  corn,  110 
scalloped  ham  and  eggs,  105 
scalloped  oysters,  136-137 
scrambled  eggs,  59 
soft-cooked  eggs,  58 
soup-sticks,  72 
soup  stock,  131 

Southern  spoon  corn  bread,  90 
sponge  cake,  94 
standard  cake,  93 
steamed  pudding,  141-142 
stewed  chicken,  136 
sweet  pickled  peaches,  156 
Swiss  steak,  128 
syrup  for  canning,  161 
tea,  33 

tomato  sauce,  79 
vanilla  ice  cream,  149 


188 


INDEX 


Recipes  —  Continued 

vegetable  salad,  83 

vegetable  soup,  132 

Welsh  rarebit,  75 

white  sauces,  41-42 
Records,  convenience  of  keeping, 

173-174 
Refrigerator,  25 
Rice,  114-115,  118 
Roasting,  4 
Rolls,  54-56 
"Routing  lines"  in  kitchen,  12, 

13,14 
Russian  service,  67 

SALAD,  BANANA,  173 

perfection,  132 

salmon,  83 

vegetable,  83 

Salad  dressings,  80,  81-82 
Salads,  80-83 
Salmon,  croquettes,  105 

salad,  83 
Sandwiches,  36-37,  97 

pea,  79 
Sauce,  hard,  142 

pudding,  142 

tomato,  79 
Sautelng,  5 
Schedule  of  work,  importance  of, 

169-172 

School  lunch,  95-100 
Score  card  for  bread,  53 
Service,  65-69 

combination,  67 

English,  67 

Russian,  67 

Sick,  food  for  the,  176-181 
Silence-cloth,  65 
Sink,  the  kitchen,  11-13 

care  of,  24 
Skim  milk,  40 
Soap,  22 

Soft-cooked  eggs,  58 
Soup,  130-132 


Soup  —  Continued 

cream  of  corn,  71-72 

cream  of  tomato,  71 

stock,  131 

vegetable,  132 
Soup-sticks,  72 
Spaghetti,  116 
Squash,  baked,  110 
Starchy  foods,  112,  114-119 
Steaming,  5 
Sterilization,  155 
Stewing,  5 
Stoves,  15-18 
Substitutes     for     meat,     73-74, 

76-77 

Sugar,  166-167 
Supper,  menu  for,  100 

plan  for,  70-71 
Sweet  potatoes,  candied,  113 
Syrup,  caramel,  43 

for  canning,  161 

TABLE,  manners,  63-65 

setting  the,  65-67 
Table,  for  processing  fruits  and 
vegetables,  162 

of  Calories  for  breakfast,  147 

of     100-Calorie     portions     of 
cooked  foods,  153 

of  100-Calorie  portions  of  un- 
cooked foods,  152 

of  warmth  and  energy  require- 
ments, 145 
Tapioca,  116-117 
Tea,  33,  34-35 
Temperatures  in  cooking,  19 
Tests  of  juice  for  jelly,  163-164 
Thermometer,  19 

candy,  166-167 
Toast,  46,  54 

cream,  42 

French,  43 
Tomato  sauce,  79 
Tomato  soup,  cream  of,  71 
Tomatoes,  canning,  161 


INDEX 


189 


UTENSILS,  cooking,  17-18 

VEAL,  126 

cuts  of,  125 
Vegetable  salad,  83 
Vegetables,  106-114 
Vermicelli,  116 
Vitamines,  8,  37,  40,  47 

WASHING  fruit,  38 


Water,  8,  30-31 

hard  and  soft,  22 
Water  glass,  57 
Welsh  rarebit,  75 
White  sauces,  41-42 
Whole-wheat  flour,  47 
Wood  stove,  15,  16,  17 
Work,  schedule  of,  169-172 

YEAST,  47-49 


LD  21-100m-7,'40  (6936s 


Tb    b/010 


1134075 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


